16th Century Spanish Monarchy: Polysynody and Conquest

The Habsburg Political Model: Polysynody

The Hispanic Monarchy in the 16th century consisted of a set of realms and territories dispersed across the globe, yet maintaining a significant degree of autonomy. The Crown of Castile was not only the richest and most populated territory, but it also offered the monarch more facilities for the exercise of absolute power.

Consequently, the establishment of Madrid as the capital and seat of the court since 1561 defined the Habsburg political model as a Polysynody—a system of government by synods or councils.

Structure of the Polysynodal System

The system relied on various councils:

• State Council: Established by Chancellor Gattinara, this council represented the unity of the monarch and his powers, dealing with the most important issues, particularly foreign policy and war. It concerned all realms.
• Regional Councils: These dealt with specific issues of each kingdom, notably those of Castile, Aragon, India, Italy, Flanders, and Portugal.
• Technical Councils: These specialized bodies handled specific functions concerning matters requiring particular attention, such as the Inquisition, the Military Orders, Finance, and War.

The Inquisition Council had jurisdiction in more than one kingdom, but not all.

Viceroys and governors replaced the king in territories where the monarch could not reside.

Spanish Conquest and Early Colonization

The initial achievements of the conquest were carried out by conquerors using limited means (firearms were few) but proved highly effective due to the fear generated among indigenous populations by the smoke and noise of the weapons.

The most important conquests targeted the Aztec and Incan empires, both of which were highly advanced agricultural societies.

Conquest Campaigns

Mexico (1519–1521)

Led by Hernán Cortés, the campaign relied on more than just military force. Key events included:

• Noche Triste (1520): The Aztecs defeated the Spanish forces in Tenochtitlan, forcing a temporary retreat.
• Battle of Otumba: Cortés, allied with the Tlaxcaltecas, defeated the Aztec forces.

Peru (1531–1533)

Led by Francisco Pizarro, the conquest benefited from internal conflict. The Incas were embroiled in a civil war between two claimants: Huáscar and Atahualpa. After the execution of Atahualpa, the conquest of Peru was completed.

Colonization and Universalism

Colonization was characterized by a concept of True Universalism, theoretically viewing the indigenous population as subjects equal to Castilians under the Spanish Crown. The process of colonization was primarily the work of the Church.