Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Key Historical Terms Defined

• Planned Economy

  An economic system where the state regulates the production process and distribution of goods.

• Marshall Plan

  A U.S. strategy to revive European countries. Its economic objectives included improving the standard of living in Europe and boosting European demand.

• COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance)

  Created in 1949, its aim was to coordinate the economic policies of Eastern European countries and establish mutual assistance agencies.

• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

  A treaty organization created in 1949.

• Warsaw Pact

  A treaty of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance signed in 1955.

• Star Wars (Strategic Defense Initiative)

  A draft initiative for strategic defense that proposed

Key Dates in Italy and Germany

Germany

1864: War of the Duchies – Austria and Prussia against Denmark.

1866: Austro-Prussian War – Prussia demonstrated its military superiority and unified North Germany.

1870-1871: Franco-Prussian War – France declared war on Prussia, surrendered, and Napoleon III was deposed. Prussia conquered Alsace-Lorraine. France signed the peace treaty.

Italy

1859: War against Austria with French support – liberation of Lombardy.

1860: A volunteer army led by Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of Sicily.

1866: Italian allies conquered Veneto.

1870: Italian troops entered Rome.

Main Players in Both Unifications

In Germany: the Prussian Chancellor Bismarck. In Italy: the Piedmontese minister Cavour.

Economic Reasons Influencing

The Spanish Civil War: Trauma and the Birth of the Francoist State

The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) marked the end of the Second Republic and the beginning of the new Francoist state, inflicting profound trauma upon Spanish society.

The Military Uprising of July 1936

The uprising took place during the government of the Popular Front (Frente Popular), shortly after the assassination of conservative leader José Calvo Sotelo. It was not a spontaneous event but a well-organized military coup attempt.

Factors Leading to the Insurrection

The main factors that fueled the rising included:

• Attempting to halt the economic and social reforms initiated by the Popular Front.
• A decision to end the deterioration of public order.
• Defense of traditional Catholic

Social Classes in 19th Century Spain

In the nineteenth century, a new social structure was divided into two classes: the proletariat and working people. The liberal model was able to survive the nobility and gentry who abounded in the interior of Spain. But as the century progressed, the noble heritage decreased. At the end of the century, industry exceeded noble fortune. The middle classes were a small number (less than 5%), but they shared the lifestyle of powerful groups.

Urban Classes and the Democratic Party

Regarding classes, the urban lower classes were dedicated to services; many women worked in domestic service. A quarter of the working population were women. In Catalonia, the craftsmen were artisans and merchants who were against the...

International Dimension of the Spanish Civil War

The "war in Spain", as it became known internationally, was perceived as a conflict between fascism and democracy, and even a clash between fascism, democracy, and communism. It was believed that in Spain, a battle was being waged that many feared would spread worldwide. For all these reasons, international opinion was divided from the very beginning.

Global Political Perspectives

Progressive Democrats were in favor of the Republic. In France, which also had a Popular Front government, the majority supported the Republic (except for extreme right-wing groups). However, at the governmental level, France preferred not to provide direct aid. In Britain, the Conservative government saw the military...

United States: Political and Economic Shifts

The period following the 1960 presidential elections was profoundly significant for President Kennedy. He sought to change fundamental aspects of American economic policy, moving away from state interventionism, and aimed to implement measures for the elimination of social and racial discrimination. Later, a shift towards radical economic liberalism emerged, which significantly benefited large corporations and fortunes, often accompanied by increased military spending and social programs.

The Expansion of the Soviet Bloc

The rapid expansion of the Soviet bloc, fueled by Joseph Stalin and the USSR's prestige from its victory against Nazi Germany, profoundly influenced the construction of new democracies...

Franco's Regime: Post-War Adaptation and Catholic Influence

After the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II (which had threatened the survival of the regime), Franco chose to adapt to the new international situation. He formed a government with Catholics in key positions and shifted the political orientation of the regime, promoting non-fascist institutional changes.

Key Institutional Changes Under Franco

Three new Fundamental Laws introduced significant institutional changes:

• The Spanish Charter (1945) included a series of rights, though their exercise was not guaranteed.
• The National Referendum Act (1945) allowed the Head of State to submit draft laws, elaborated by the courts, to a referendum.
• The Law of Succession to the Head of State declared

Spanish Political Instability (1917-1923)

Between 1917 and 1923, Spain saw 13 different governments formed, highlighting the lack of parliamentary support for the ruling parties.

Social Conflict and Labor Unrest

This political instability was accompanied by the strong growth of trade unions. The CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo) reached 700,000 affiliates, promoting mobilization in defense of better wages and working conditions. Key leaders included Salvador Seguí, Ángel Pestaña, and Joan Peiró. The workers' struggle had the most significant impact in Barcelona and its industrial area. The most important conflict was the strike at the Canadian company, which paralyzed industry and services for over 40 days.

The Annual Disaster (1921)

The Anti-Franco Opposition in the 1950s

The law consolidated the regime's position in the fifties, and the anti-Franco opposition lost hope of overthrowing it in the short term. Since the end of the Civil War, some militants had tried to rebuild their parties and trade unions. Notably, the Communists maintained significant guerrilla opposition activity until 1949. Opposition also moved against the regime from exile.

Changes and New Organizations in the Fifties

The fifties saw several changes, including:

1. New organizations such as the National Liberation Front of Families.
2. Young people opposing the Franco dictatorship.
3. The emergence of strikes.

In 1956, very violent student conflicts erupted in Madrid, leading to a severe political crisis.

Social Mobilization

The Crisis of the Restoration (1902-1917)

The Failure of the Turno: The Alternation in Power

In 1902, the new king, Alfonso XIII, reached the age of majority. He tried to keep the peace. Polavieja and Silvela's governments and Antonio Maura tried some reforms (agrarian, electoral law, local government) but failed.

Opposition

The opposition forces were growing and radicalized. Catalan nationalist groups were grouped in the so-called Catalan Solidarity and triumphed in elections. Republicanism grew, with Alejandro Lerroux leading the Radical Party and the Republican Union. Pablo Iglesias was the first socialist deputy. The Anarchist currents were divided, but sectors close to labor constituted a trade union, the National Labor Confederation (CNT)...