Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Alfonso XII of Spain (1857-1885)

Alfonso XII of Spain (born in Madrid, 1857 - died in El Pardo, 1885) was King of Spain from 1875 to 1885. The reign of Alfonso XII marked the return of the House of Bourbon to Spain shortly after the interruption that began in 1868, which included the reign of Amadeus of Savoy and the First Spanish Republic. With the fall of the monarchy of King Amadeus I of the House of Savoy, and the First Republic, a document was signed stating that a parliamentary monarchy would ascend to the throne (1874). The following year, Alfonso arrived in Madrid and was crowned king. During his brief reign, three main lines of action were pursued:

• Ending the conflict between Carlism and Isabelism: The Third Carlist War ended, and Alfonso

The Revolutions of 1820, primarily in Spain, Naples, and Greece, followed a period of dominant constitutional monarchy. Only in Greece did the revolt against the Turkish Empire result in British support, leading to the recognition of Greek independence in 1829. Many of these revolutions were spearheaded by minorities with secret societies, such as the Freemasons and Carbonari, deeply embedded within the military.

The Revolutions of 1848, inspired by the French Revolution, enjoyed widespread popular support initially. This wave of revolutions, while rapidly spreading across many countries, ultimately ended in failure. These revolutions championed democracy, demanding universal male suffrage and social republics. Europe was experiencing an...

Spain's Tumultuous Era: 1788-1833

The Napoleonic Invasion and Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)

Precursors to Conflict

The period leading up to the war was marked by significant political shifts:

• 1788: Charles IV ascended the Spanish throne.
• 1795: Peace was signed with France.
• From 1799: With Napoleon's rise to power, Spain became a satellite state of France.
• 1807: The Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed.
• 1808: Ferdinand VII staged a coup d'état against his father, Charles IV.

Key Events of 1808

• Events in Bayonne: Napoleon managed to lure both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, forcing their abdication.
• Madrid Mutinies: On May 2, 1808, mutinies erupted in Madrid against the French occupation.
• King of Spain: Joseph Bonaparte was installed as the new King

The Reign of Amadeo I and its Challenges

The Regency of General Serrano

This period saw General Serrano appointed as Regent Executive. He faced several significant problems, including:

• A colonial war in Cuba
• Active opposition from the Carlists and Alfonsinos
• Constant harassment from discontented republicans among urban and rural populations

In July of that year, more Carlist uprisings occurred, foreshadowing the Third Carlist War. The Federal Charter of Tortosa was signed, uniting the federal committees of the former Crown of Aragon, along with Andalusia, Extremadura, Galicia, Asturias, Castile and León, etc. General Prim faced factionalism within the police force. Amadeo I was nominated as the new King of Spain.

The Brief Reign of Amadeo I

This proposal...

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

The Liberal Triennium began in 1820. Key features of this period include:

• An Interim Advisory Committee was formed to restore the liberal system.
• Elections were called for the Cortes (Parliament).
• The liberal Constitution of 1812 was reinstated.
• The Inquisition was definitively abolished.
• Constitutional, liberal city councils were restored.
• New patriotic societies and newspapers emerged, fostering public discussion.
• Liberalism became a central topic of debate, experiencing significant expansion.
• The National Militia was re-established to protect the Constitution.

The Cortes initiated a new economic recovery, aiming to reduce the Church's influence and unify the country. Liberals, however, were divided into two factions:...

Charles III Ruled in Spain Until His Death

Ancien Régime: Political, Social, and Economic Characteristics of the States Before the French and Industrial Revolutions (Late Eighteenth Century)

King = Ruler (executive, legislative, judicial)

• Absolute Monarchy: Concentration of powers, the king is the law and sovereignty of divine origin, subjects with no rights or freedoms.
• Stratified Society: Legal inequality, privileges by birth, privileged classes (nobility, clergy), non-privileged estates (Third Estate).
• Agricultural Sector: Land is the primary source of wealth and power. Nobility is honorable (economic and political power). The Third Estate has no privileges (peasantry, bourgeoisie).
• Business: The secondary source of wealth. The bourgeoisie has

The Second Republic in Peacetime (1931-1936)

The young Second Republic was born into a challenging international context, marked by adverse economic and political conditions. The global economic crisis, triggered by the 1929 crash, was in full swing, and the democratic model was declining in Europe. Austria had a *para-fascist* government, Germany was on the verge of being ruled by Adolf Hitler, and Mussolini's Italy was already firmly established. In short, European society in the 1930s witnessed a growing polarization between fascism and socialism.

Key Periods of the Republic

• The Provisional Government (1931)
• The "Reformist Biennium": A period of left-wing political reforms.
• The "Red Biennium": A period marked by the CEDA government, aiming to

US Imperialism in the Late 19th Century

Economic Factors

The rise of US imperialism was fueled by significant economic growth in the late 19th century. This growth, coupled with European protectionist policies, encouraged American expansion.

Ideological Factors

• Social Darwinism: This ideology, gaining traction at the time, promoted the idea that nations, like species, must compete for survival, justifying US expansionism.
• The Monroe Doctrine: This cornerstone of US foreign policy, articulated by President James Monroe, asserted American dominance in the Western Hemisphere and discouraged European interference.

The US began expanding its influence in the Pacific, targeting islands as potential markets for trade with Asia. This form of imperialism,...

Decolonization in the Middle East

The Middle East was one of the first regions to achieve independence after World War I, exhibiting three key features:

• Cultural Unity: Most people spoke Arabic, and many, including Turks and Persians, practiced Islam, fostering a sense of shared identity.
• Political Divisions: While Arabs aspired to their own states, the region was historically divided among three major powers: the British Empire, the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire, and Persia.
• Strategic Location: The region constituted the shortest sea route eastward via the Suez Canal. Furthermore, the oil fields around the Persian Gulf became critically important.

During the First World War, the British and Ottoman Empires clashed in the Middle East. Britain sought...

Decolonization After World War II: Causes and Context

• The process of independence was accelerated by the weakness of European metropolises following World War II.
• Rise of nationalism in the colonies.
• Decolonial influence exerted by the U.S. and USSR.
• Asia presented diverse geographical and political interests.

Decolonization in Asia

The Rise of Communist China

• End of the imperial era and subsequent Civil War between Nationalist and Communist forces.
• Communist victory led by Mao Zedong.
• Establishment of Mao's government as a socialist dictatorship.

Independence and Partition of India

• The British Indian Colony achieved progressive independence, strongly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi.
• Partition occurred in 1947, resulting in:
  • India (secular state, focused on