Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Process of Colonies' Emancipation

Causes of Emancipation

Policies

The ideological currents in Europe were unknown in the Americas, where they became the germ of the idea of independence. Developments occurred in Spain in the 19th century, providing new ideological arguments and, above all, an occasion to put them into practice.

Social Factors

Creoles were the social group that steered the process of independence. This group found itself excluded from senior political positions but instead occupied social and economic roles.

Economic Life

Creoles sought independence due to the coveted commercial monopoly enjoyed by Spain, which included a ban on trading freely with foreigners.

International Causes

The international situation led to the isolation of the...

The Reign of Amadeo I

Searching for historical clarity on this period is not easy. European royal houses rejected the throne, and in other cases, European powers were against rival candidates. Some considered General Espartero, but ultimately, Amadeo of Savoy was chosen.

The reign of Amadeo I lasted only two years, plagued by a lack of monarchical support. Republicans regarded him as an intruder, and his reign faced significant challenges:

• Political Instability: The beginning of the Third Carlist War.
• Government Division: Constant internal political friction.
• Social Issues: Persecution of AIT supporters who sought representation in the courts.
• Colonial Problems: Issues with American colonies, despite some progress in Puerto Rico.

Due to continuing...

Canova System 8.1

The 1868 defeat of the revolution did not bring a stable monarchy. The social problem and political awareness among the public to participate in consolidation were missing.
A real middle class was missing. A group of citizens and the authorities appeared separated from the group. This was called the reinstatement period.

The Meaning of the Regime of the Restoration

After the coup, General Pavia, on January 3, 1874, headed the government of General Serrano and made an effort to end the Carlist war.
Alfonso XII, upon turning 17 years old on December 1, opened the Declaration of National Certificate of the Sandhurst Military Academy. The traditional monarchy re-established in Spain was to solve the problems at the end of...

Consequences of the Economic Crisis

The crisis significantly impacted various aspects of social life. It halted population development, leading to a decline in birth rates. Population movements were also affected, disrupting urban concentration as the struggling industry couldn't absorb the unemployed workforce. International migration was jeopardized, impacting immigration.

The crisis did not affect all social groups equally. Some sectors benefited by maintaining their income levels, while shareholders and business owners faced ruin. Workers lived in fear of unemployment, and peasants, though initially buffered by their domestic economies, eventually suffered.

Intellectual and Political Repercussions

Intellectually, the crisis fostered a re-evaluation...

The Republican Era: Reforms and Social Impact

The period saw increasing distrust of business, despite a wage increase that had positive effects on the economy, boosting consumption and favoring various industries.

Key Reforms of the Republican Government

Military Reform (Section 3.1)

The Republican government was convinced that the nation needed a profound transformation. Manuel Azaña, then Minister of War, pushed for a reform that aimed to create a professional army. His intention was to end the special privileges of the military and stop the army's intervention in political life and its history of coups.

Key measures included:

• The "Law of Withdrawal of Officers," requiring all military personnel to pledge allegiance to the Republic.
• Abolition of

Russian Opposition to World War I and the February Revolution

In 1914, only the Bolsheviks had opposed Russia's entry into the war. However, over time, contrary positions increased. With the war ongoing since 1915, liberal and socialist opposition resurfaced with force. The winter of 1916-1917 saw discontent in the army and cities multiply due to supply shortages. Amid freezing temperatures, long lines of women formed in front of nearly empty stores in search of food or coal.

In 1917, spontaneous demonstrations of protest erupted in the capital, Petrograd (St. Petersburg), especially led by women. These united strikes and the police were powerless to control the city. The government sent the army to suppress the revolt, but troops acted with...

Regionalism and Nationalism in Spain

Basque Nationalism

In 1895, Sabino Arana founded the PNV (Basque Nationalist Party), centered around a group advocating for a Foral Bizkaia. Initially holding radical positions, Arana gradually moderated his stance, renouncing separatism and aligning with Christian ideology to support a more conservative nationalist option. He actively sought to disassociate Basque nationalism from Carlism, rejecting its reactionary elements. Basque nationalism championed the former statutory institutions, symbols of medieval political freedoms lost after liberalism's defeat against centralist Carlism. The PNV's program focused on recovering these liberties, incorporating a conception of race and language rooted in Catholicism....

Early Catalanism: Foundations and Manifestos

The early stages of Catalanism saw the denunciation of centralist oppression by the regime over Catalonia. Claims were formulated in defense of protectionism and Catalan civil law. This period produced what is considered the first unified political manifesto of Catalanism.

The failure of an initial project proved the feasibility of the Admiral Project, which demonstrated a significant republican Catalan popular base. The Centre Català, however, disappeared in the mid-1890s.

A new generation of intellectuals, including Riba, founded the Lliga de Catalunya in 1887. Its primary objectives included:

• Defense of Catalan civil law.
• Promotion of protectionism.
• Advocacy for exclusively Catalan political action.

The Crisis of Isabel II's Reign

Since 1849, the political climate in Spain was deteriorating, marked by the founding of the Democratic Party by radical progressives. During this era, the government maintained a liberal bourgeois legal system with a centralized structure. Key policies included a reform of the Treasury and the restoration of relations with the Church, formalized by the Concordat of 1851, which recognized the Pope and Queen Isabel II.

However, two major issues plagued the period: the Queen's marriage and the Second Carlist War.

The Pact of Ostend and Political Opposition

In August 1866, progressive representatives, Democrats, and Republicans reached an agreement—the Pact of Ostend—to coordinate the opposition. This pact established...

The Artist and Visual Elements

Painted by Francisco Goya Lucientes, this work showcases his mastery of light and color. The artist skillfully illuminates the right side of the canvas, leaving the other in shadow, from which a face (presumably the Queen's, given the context) looks towards the observer. Notable visual elements include the shimmering gold, the plasticity of the luxurious clothing of Queen Maria Luisa, and the vibrant red attire of the child Francisco de Paula.

Compositional Structure

The work is a collective portrait, sharing common ground with Neoclassical portraiture. It is set inside a room of the Palace, decorated with two large, unidentified quartz objects. The characters are divided into three distinct groups:

• The core group,