Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Congress of Vienna (1814)

The Congress of Vienna, held in 1814, aimed to define the new European order after the Napoleonic Wars. Coordinated by Austrian Chancellor Metternich, it involved Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain. The Congress proceeded with the territorial reorganization of Europe, forming two alliances and defending specific political principles.

The European Restoration Era

The Restoration was a political period in Europe that occurred after Napoleon's defeat. During this era, monarchies were reinstated, establishing a security system founded on negotiation and the balance of power among states.

Latin American Independence Movements

While the Hispanic American monarchy remained intact, an independence movement was initiated,...

The Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)

The Sexenio Democrático (Six Democratic Years) marked the first attempt in Spain to establish a democracy based on universal male suffrage. It originated with the September 1868 Revolution, which began with a pronunciamiento by Generals Prim and Serrano.

Provisional Government and the 1869 Constitution

After the triumph of the insurrection, a provisional government was formed, composed of Progressives (Prim, Sagasta) and Unionists (Topete), and chaired by Serrano. This new government held the power of the Courts and the executive branch. This situation, where the Democrats were not part of the government, led to a division within the Democratic Party. On one hand were the Cimbrian Democrats (led by Manuel

Regeneration of the Spanish Political System

The Democratic Six Years (1868-1874)

In 1868, progressives and democrats, led by General Prim, launched a pronunciamiento against Queen Isabella II. A moderate government replaced the monarchy, ushering in the era of the Democratic Six Years. This period saw the rise of a progressive, democratic government that implemented universal male suffrage and championed freedoms. Human rights and religious freedom were enshrined in the 1869 Constitution. However, the six years were marked by political instability. Following the assassination of General Prim, the monarchy was reinstated with Amadeo I. His reign was short-lived, leading to the First Republic, the Second Carlist War, the Cantonalist War, and...

Catalanist Union and Bases de Manresa

In 1891, the Union Catalanist was founded. It aimed to be a federation of all Catalanist groups, centers, and publications, with the goal of spreading regionalist ideas and implementing a common program for all Catalan nationalist groups. Its social base was representative of the Catalan bourgeoisie and conservatives, and it had massive support from rural Catalonia. The Union was able to awaken Catalan consciousness of its particularism in broad sectors of Catalan society and represented the final triumph of Catalanist theses over regionalist ones.

One of the first acts of the Union was held in Manresa (1892). This meeting established the bases for the Catalan Regional Constitution, known as the Bases de

The Crisis of 1640 and the Union of Arms

The Crisis of 1640 was the result of an attempt to unify the territories of the monarchy, forming a centralized state and distributing economic burdens among all kingdoms following the exhaustion of Castile. This plan was detailed in the Memorial of the Count-Duke of Olivares in 1624. Among the proposed reforms, the Union of Arms stands out, establishing a system where each kingdom was to maintain a specific number of soldiers to fight in European conflicts, such as the Thirty Years' War and the conflict with Holland, aiming to complete an army of 140,000 soldiers.

This fiscal redistribution was rejected in the peripheral realms, particularly in Catalonia, where it transformed into a political confrontation....

The Social Dynamics of the Great War

Renewed Republicanism

Republicanism had entered into decline. This situation changed when the first elections were held by universal male suffrage. The cities were beginning to grow, and popular sectors responded to the call of a new party: the Republican Union.

This success was short-lived due to the rapid reaction of caciquismo, divisions among Republicans, etc. In this scenario of political disorientation, Alejandro Lerroux's Republicanism appeared, which was gaining political prominence. He had his first contact with Barcelona when he had to cover the so-called process of Montjuic, where he criticized the arbitrary actions committed by the authorities. As of 1902, Republicanism became the first force in...

The Conservative Party in Restoration Spain

Initially called the Conservative Liberal Party, it was led first by Cánovas del Castillo (until his death in 1897) and later by Francisco Silvela. This party brought together moderate liberals, members of the Liberal Union (like Cánovas himself), progressives (such as Francisco Romero Robledo), and even traditional Catholics (like Alejandro Pidal). Politically, the Conservatives were positioned on the moderate right.

The Liberal Party in Restoration Spain

Founded in 1880 as a merger party, it was led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta and represented the liberal left within the Restoration system. Sagasta was an old progressive who had led the Constitutionalist Party during the monarchy of Amadeo I. He had...

The Liberal Biennium (1854-1856)

During the Liberal or Progressive Biennium (1854-1856), the government was led by Espartero and O'Donnell. This period began with the drafting of the Manifesto of Manzanares. Key actions included the proposal of a new Constitution, Electoral Law Reform, the reduction of taxes, and the restoration of the National Militia. The Constitution of 1855-1856 remained non nata (not promulgated).

The Madoz Law and the Railways Act

Minister Pascual Madoz enacted the Disentailment Law (Ley de Desamortización), which involved the confiscation of civilian and local property, including communal lands, meadows, and forests used by villages. This aimed to eliminate bound property to secure resources for the state, affecting the...

The Six Democratic Years: 1868-1874

The combination of Moderate Liberalism's exhaustion and the severe economic crisis of 1866–1868 fueled opposition to the regime of Isabella II (the Elizabethan regime). This opposition culminated in the September Revolution of 1868, initiating a period of democratic experimentation in Spain, characterized by the 1869 Constitution, the monarchy of Amadeo I, and, following its failure, the experience of the First Republic.

Causes of the 1868 Revolution

Decline of the Moderate Regime

• Exhaustion of the Moderate political system.
• Growing opposition to the regime of Isabella II, formalized by the Pact of Ostend (1866).
• The government of González Bravo employed harsh repressive measures and reduced the budget, notably

Manuel Godoy and the Reign of Charles IV (1792-1808)

Between 1792 and 1808, Manuel Godoy (who served a brief hiatus from 1798–1800) embodied Enlightened Despotism amidst a pervasive fear of revolution. Following the execution of Louis XVI and the subsequent war with France, Spain attempted to manage the War of the Convention (1793). Originally, Spain sought to win the war rather than sign a peace treaty.

The War with France and the Peace of Basel

Great Britain offered the support required to assist Spain against France by sea, but this cooperation was declined. By 1794, certain factions—including the forces of Catalonia, Barcelona's defense committee, and the Council of Gipuzkoa—found it easier to negotiate peace. Godoy eventually sought...