Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Carlist Wars: Dynastic Conflicts in 19th-Century Spain

Don Carlos and the Abrantes Manifesto (1833)

On October 1, 1833, Don Carlos proclaimed his dynastic rights through the Abrantes Manifesto, initiating the Carlist Wars.

The Carlist Faction: Absolutists and Traditionalists

The Carlist side was primarily composed of the nobility, ultraconservative members of the administration and army, and the lower clergy who sought to prevent the loss of the Church's influence. All were staunch absolutists. Their support base was predominantly in the rural north of Spain, including the Basque Country, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. A key motivation for the Carlists was the defense of traditional privileges (fueros) and economic interests.

The Cristino

1931–1933: The Rise of Global Instability

• 1931: Spain proclaims the Second Republic; Germany suspends compensation payments; Japan annexes Manchuria; El Salvador experiences a coup.
• 1932: Engelbert Dollfuss forms the Austrian government; Commonwealth meeting in Canada; Oliveira Salazar becomes Prime Minister of Portugal; Gandhi begins a hunger strike in India.
• 1933: Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany; the League of Nations warns Japan regarding aggression in China; Greece and Turkey sign a Non-Aggression Pact; a coup occurs in Cuba.

1934–1936: Escalation and Expansion

• 1934: France forms a left-wing coalition against fascism; the USSR joins the League of Nations; China experiences the Long March; Lázaro Cárdenas becomes President of

The Rivalries Between the Major European Powers

France and Germany

In the 20th century, relations between France and Germany were strained due to French territorial claims over Alsace and Lorraine, lost in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Economic rivalries also fueled the tension. The growth of trade and financial relations between Great Britain and Germany sometimes sparked competition for new markets. Germany believed that to sustain its rapid industrial development, it needed to expand into new markets and establish a colonial empire.

British mistrust of Germany stemmed partly from the latter's naval policy, which aimed to create a powerful navy to rival Britain's.

The Formation of Blocs and the Arms Race

Starting in 1907, the major European...

Decolonization in Asia and Africa

Asia's Decolonization

Following World War II, Asia experienced a wave of decolonization, leading to the emergence of numerous independent nations. This process varied across different regions:

Islamic Asia

After the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I, its Arab territories came under the League of Nations' mandate system. Great Britain administered Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine, while France controlled Syria and Lebanon. This period was marked by:

• Rivalry between France and the United Kingdom
• Artificial territorial divisions
• Antagonism between Jewish and Arab communities
• Conflicts over oil resources and control of the Suez Canal

Iraq gained formal independence in 1932. The establishment of Israel in 1948, following...

Fascism: A Political Model

Fascism is a political model that first emerged in interwar Germany and Italy.

Principles

• Exacerbated nationalism with a racist component: This promotes the preservation and exaltation of race as a factor to guarantee basic cohesive national unity.
• Exaltation of the state: Individual rights and freedoms are subordinated to the interests of the state.
• Rejection of democracy and liberalism: This denies the principle of equality among all citizens, popular sovereignty, and suffrage. It also suppresses opposition and the parliamentary system.
• Cult of the leader: This involves distrust of reason and the legitimization of violence.

Fascist Dictatorship in Italy

Causes

• During World War I, the cost of living in Italy increased more

Allied Counteroffensive and Victory (1942-1945)

By 1942, the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) shifted to a defensive stance. In the Pacific, the Japanese navy suffered significant defeats at Midway and Guadalcanal. In North Africa, the British Eighth Army defeated the German Afrika Korps at El Alamein. American troops landed in Morocco and Algeria, attacking from the west.

Soviet Advances on the Eastern Front

The turning point on the Eastern Front occurred in November 1942. A Soviet counteroffensive encircled the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad. From 1943 onward, the USSR launched continuous offensives. In 1943, they broke through the German lines at Kursk in the largest tank battle in history, resulting in a decisive German defeat. By...

Proclamation of the Republic & Provisional Government (1931)

In 1931, the Republic was proclaimed in various Spanish cities after King Alfonso XIII went into exile. A provisional coalition government was established, comprising ministers from diverse center-left parties that had signed the Pact of San Sebastián. Niceto Alcalá Zamora, from the center-right, became its President. The government's primary mission was to call general elections for a Constituent Cortes and to address pressing issues, including regionalist demands and religious conflicts. The elections for the Constituent Cortes resulted in a Republican coalition of leftist and socialist parties.

The Spanish Constitution of 1931

Drafting the Constitution of 1931 was the primary...

Political Developments

The Rise of Falangist Hegemony

There was a qualitative and quantitative dominance of the Falange, due to Germany's role on the international scene and the recent civil war. The strong man of this stage was Serrano Suñer, the Cuñadísimo. The Falange encouraged a framework program, typically of fascist society, through their organizations and the control of press and propaganda.

Spain and World War II

Franco abandoned neutrality and declared a state of non-belligerence. He met with Hitler at Hendaye in October 1940, where it was reiterated that Spain would declare war on Great Britain to recover Gibraltar, but in the end, this did not happen. Spain sent the Blue Division to fight against the Soviets. Seeing that an Axis...

Charles II and the Issue of Succession

Causes of the War of Spanish Succession

Charles II succeeded his father, Philip IV, in 1665. By 1675, the government was still in the hands of favorites. As of 1680, the first Duke of Medinaceli and the Count of Oropesa, who were regenerationists, developed political, economic, administrative, and religious reforms. An obstacle to the recovery of Spain was the ongoing conflict with Louis XIV of France. There were four wars with France during this period.

The lack of an heir to Charles II led to two major candidates for the Spanish throne: Philip of Anjou and Charles of Austria. The Castilians favored the French succession, while the Crown of Aragon, especially Catalonia, supported Charles. Charles II ultimately...

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