Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The End of Colonial Rule and Its Impact

Reasons for the Outbreak

The absence of a coherent colonial policy prevented Spain from fulfilling the commitments made during the signing of the Peace of Zanjón in 1878. For Cubans, this meant that emancipation was the only definitive solution. The global situation warranted a new colonial distribution that international law favored. Consequently, U.S. imperialism turned its attention to the Spanish territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean.

Colonial War in the Caribbean and Philippines

The war resumed in Cuba in February 1895 under the so-called Grito de Baire and the cry of "Viva Cuba Libre!" The insurrection was formed by independence fighters. General Martínez Campos' initial attitude eventually...

The Colonial War in Morocco: The Annual Disaster

The Disaster of '98 marked the end of Spanish imperialism at a time when the imperialism of modern industrial capitalist powers was at its peak. Following the distribution of most of Africa, the territory of modern-day Morocco was one of the few regions left to be partitioned. This provoked major international tensions that contributed to the path leading to the First World War.

The Algeciras Conference and Rif Resistance

In 1906, world powers met at the Algeciras Conference, where they agreed to divide Morocco between France, who received the majority of the territory, and Spain, who took control of the mountainous northern region. Conflicts with the local tribes soon appeared. The Rif tribes banded...

Bencomo: The Mencey of Taoro

Bencomo was the mencey (king) of Taoro, a Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife. He fought in the First Battle of Acentejo, a victory for the Guanches against the invading Castilians, after having refused the terms of Alonso Fernández de Lugo. He may have perished on the heights of San Roque during the Battle of Aguere, alongside his brother Tinguaro.

The First Battle of Acentejo

The first Battle of Acentejo took place on the island of Tenerife between the Guanches and an alliance of Spaniards, other Europeans, and associated natives on May 31, 1494, during the Spanish conquest of the island. It resulted in a victory for the Guanches of Tenerife.

Advancing to the interior of the island, Fernández de Lugo confirmed...

Historical, Social, and Philosophical Context of St. Thomas Aquinas

Historical Framework: St. Thomas Aquinas lived during the Middle Ages (11th-15th centuries), specifically the 13th century. The expansion of the early Middle Ages was fueled by increased agricultural yields, improved nutrition, and population growth. However, the late 13th century faced crises, including famine, plague, and war.

This era also saw a power struggle between the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope. Pope Innocent II asserted theocracy, claiming religious authority over political matters and moving the papacy to Avignon. Later, the Western Schism resulted in two popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon.

Following the decline of these major powers, hereditary monarchies and...

Athenian Society in the 5th Century BC

In 5th century BC Athenian society, there were three distinct classes:

Citizens

This class was composed of free adult males who were children of Athenian parents during the time of Pericles (5th century BC). Citizens constituted the core of privileged people who possessed full political rights and were the only ones who could possess or acquire land in Attica.

In return, citizens were obliged to pay taxes, abide by and comply with all laws, and be mobilized for war. Among the citizens, there were significant differences in their wealth: first, members of noble families and then the townspeople formed by small farmers, traders, artisans, and sailors.

Metics

Metics means "cohabitation." Foreigners were free and...

Military Directory (1923–1925)

The Military Directory (1923–1925) was established as an interim regime intended to resolve existing problems and propose solutions. It aimed to regenerate political life and end the initial stages of caciquismo (local political bossism). The regime was supposed to dismantle democratic institutions. The dictator ruled by decree, eliminated political parties, and created the Patriotic Union to address public order issues by militarizing the state. Anarchists and communists were persecuted.

Key Actions and Foreign Policy

The immediate challenge was Morocco. The dictator took personal command of the landing at Al Hoceima. This led to a policy with France that resulted in the surrender of Abd el Krim and the effective...

The Transformation of Carlism

After the defeat of 1876, the Carlist pretender, Charles de Bourbon, was banned from staying in Spain. Consequently, some leading members of Carlism accepted King Alfonso XII as legitimate, causing a crisis within the party.

Cándido Nocedal and Juan Vázquez de Mella promoted the renewal of the party, spreading Carlist circles throughout Spain and suggesting a program tailored to the new situation: the Acta de Loredan. This program maintained:

• The defense of Catholicism
• The fuerismo
• The authority of the Carlist pretender
• Opposition to democracy

While it did not favor the former regime, it did accept capitalism. However, internal religious disputes emerged, with some members accusing party leaders of prioritizing the...

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

Timeline

• Church and Monastery: 1638-1641
• Facade: 1665-1667

Style

• High Baroque
• Architect: Francesco Borromini
• Materials: Brick and Stucco
• Building System: Trabeated and Vaulted
• Location: Rome, Italy

Structure

• Columns: Large perimeter columns support the load.
• Verticality: The church's elevation creates an upward movement.

Exterior and Interior Space

• Facade: Two levels with close correspondence.
• Columns: Tall, closely spaced columns emphasize upward movement.
• Undulating Design: Concave and convex elements create a dynamic facade.
• Interior: Oval plan with intricate, winding space.
• Columns: Sixteen giant columns support the composite cornice.
• Dome: Oval with geometric coffers (octagons, hexagons, crosses) and a lantern.
• Perspective:

1.1. Franco's Regime Features

The Franco regime established a state legitimized solely by the Civil War, characterized by extreme authoritarianism. Its key features were:

• Totalitarianism: The Franco dictatorship, inspired by German and Italian fascist models, abolished the 1931 Constitution, eliminating individual and collective rights. It shut down Parliament, banned political parties and trade unions, permitting only a single party and official union.
• Leadership: Franco, titled Caudillo of Spain, was Head of State and, for many years, also the president of the government. He was Generalissimo of the armies and leader of the national party.
• Unitary and Centralist State: The regime abolished autonomy statutes and promoted a unified Spanish identity,

Renaissance Architecture in Spain: 16th Century

During the sixteenth century, Spanish architecture went through three stages, while still incorporating some Moorish-style buildings:

1. Plateresque

Its name comes from the similarity between the decoration of Spanish buildings during the first half of the sixteenth century and goldsmiths' work (really a late Gothic style). Two typical examples of this decoration are the facade of the University of Salamanca, the city of Seville, and the Royal Chapel of Granada, where the tomb of the Catholic Monarchs is located.

2. Romanism

This was the classical revival. The most representative architect is Diego de Siloé, who spent much time in Rome studying the new style. He did this on behalf of the Cathedral