Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

1. Reino Astur-Leonese

• Surge in the first half of the eighth century.
• 718: The Visigoths elected Pelayo as their king.
• 722: He faced Muslims in the Battle of Covadonga, a skirmish of uncertain outcome, but one that allowed him to consolidate his power. The court was established in Oviedo.
• In the ninth century, cities such as Burgos, Zamora, and Coimbra were incorporated into the kingdom. The maximum expansion coincided with the reign of Alfonso III.
• In the tenth century, the capital moved to León, and the kingdom was renamed the Kingdom of León.

2. Nacimiento de Castilla

At the time of the Caliphate of Cordoba:

• León suffered Muslim raids and its expansion was arrested.
• Castile becomes independent.
• It was divided into counties, which were united under

Classification of Industrial Raw Materials

For industrial products, natural raw materials are required. These are natural raw materials from nature that serve as the basis for industry, classified as follows: animal, plant, and mining-based materials.

Raw Materials of Animal and Plant Origin

• Animal origin: Wool, leather, and livestock are used in the textile and clothing industries. Fishing also provides raw materials for canned goods, oil, and fish meal.
• Plant origin: These come from agriculture and forestry. Cotton is used to make textiles, and wood from forestry is also utilized.

Mining and Mineral Raw Materials

Materials extracted from underground are divided into three categories: metal, energy, and non-metal.

• Metal: Iron ore and metallurgy are

The North-South Divide

There is a significant difference between the North and the South. The poverty line divides the rich North and the poor South. Within countries, there are wide disparities. While the current world contains rich areas, it is not able to share in equity, and the distance between the North and South grows daily.

The Market Imposes Its Law

Globalization is a process of global integration of various economic markets through liberalization and regional trade, favored by improvements in communications and transport. The market is now global, and multinational companies manufacture and sell production where it best serves their interests.

Global Market and Unequal Trade

Globalization benefits the rich North because it is imposed by...

Tema 11: Territorial Evolution of the Peninsula

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1.1 Causes of Territorial Evolution

The principal causes of territorial evolution included the following:

• Population growth: By the end of the century the population of the peninsula exceeded seven million inhabitants; Castile protracted millions, reaching almost 6 million people.
• Union of Castile and Aragon: The great extent of these kingdoms, the increasing number of their possessions and the importance of their economic resources were the foundation for obtaining a global power without precedent in European history.
• Navarre: Navarre was won in the early sixteenth century.
• Consolidation of Portugal: Its agreements with Castile allowed

Key Thinkers and Concepts of the 17th and 18th Centuries

Bossuet: Defender of Divine Right Monarchy

A thinker who defended the **Divine Origin of Monarchy**, asserting that no law or institution could stand above the king.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Architect of Mercantilism

Finance Minister under Louis XIV, known for implementing the economic system of **Mercantilism**.

Mercantilism: Colbert's Economic System

An economic system established by Colbert, based on three core ideas:

• A state's wealth was measured by the amount of gold and silver it possessed. Therefore, it was necessary to accumulate these metals through trade.
• To capture external trade (exports) and prevent wealth from leaving the country, the state implemented **Protectionism**.
• The state

International Trade Flows and Economic Regions

International trade is increasingly dominated by three major regions: the EU, North America, and East and Southeast Asia. Developed countries control most global trade. They primarily import primary products and fuels.

Developing countries (LDCs) are increasing their participation in world trade, largely due to the increased imports and exports of China and India. A large number of poor countries remain outside the main flow of global trade. Developing countries focus on manufacturing and importing agricultural technology, specialized goods, and fuel from rich countries.

Essential Transport Services

Transport services and their intermediaries are crucial. Developed countries have good, modern, fast,...

Global Capitalist Market

The global capitalist market involves a network of exchanges of goods, information, and capital that affects all nations. It is organized primarily around three areas: North America, the EU, and Japan.

Globalization Defined

Globalization is characterized by the economic interdependence and the political, social, and cultural development of all countries.

Features of Globalization

• Global Coverage: Any event affects the world in its totality.
• Immediacy: Thanks to new technologies, decisions taken in one location can have immediate effects elsewhere on the planet.
• Economic Nature: Everything seems to become a commodity to be bought and sold.
• Societal Foundation: It has become the foundation of society, influencing production methods

Key Urban and Population Concepts

Metropolitan Area

It's a large urban sprawl surrounding a major city, administratively encompassing several towns with significant economic and social relations.

Periurban Area

Also known as a suburban area, it's a zone with imprecise boundaries, characterized by mixed land uses and lifestyles specific to both rural and urban environments (agriculture, industry).

Population Census

This is an individual count of a country's population at a specific time. It collects demographic, economic, and social data. Typically conducted every 10 years.

Natural Population Growth

The difference between the number of births and the number of deaths in a population.

Urban Sprawl (Eixample)

In urban planning, this refers to expansion...

Agriculture Fundamentals

Physical Factors

1. Weather

• Temperature ranges: +45º to -10º.

2. Relief

• Includes features like terraces and balconies (+10°).

3. Soil Types

• Compact Clay Soils: Very fine-grained and compact. Rich in nutrients, but can become easily compacted.
• Sandy Soils: Coarse-grained and very loose (suelto). Do not retain water and nutrients well, requiring frequent watering and fertilizer for plants.
• Loamy Soils: Medium grain and optimal compactness. They are ideal because they retain water and nutrients without becoming overly compacted.

Human Factors

1. Population volume.
2. Agricultural techniques.
3. Production methods.
4. Agricultural policy.

Agricultural Landscapes

• Plots: Open fields and enclosed fields (bocage).
• Agriculture types: Intensive &

Tertiary Services and Activities

These encompass all immaterial products of economic activity designed to meet our needs. Examples include:

• Transport
• Healthcare
• Education

Post-Industrial Society

This describes an economy characterized by a strong service sector, where services constitute the most significant portion of GDP and employ over 60% of the active population. The contributing factors include:

• Mechanization
• Industrial production
• Increased living standards
• Policy development
• Research and development
• Information and communication technologies

Social Services

These are activities that ensure the welfare of people. In affluent countries, they are a consolidated "right," whereas in developing countries, they often represent a significant demand and a...