Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

The Survival of the Ancien Régime

In the eighteenth century, the same social and economic structures remained as in previous centuries. However, intense changes were occurring, which ended up ending that system.

What Do We Call the Old Regime?

We call the Old Regime the social, economic, and political system that characterized eighteenth-century European monarchies, which offered three main features:

• 1) The maintenance of a stratified society of feudal origin.
• 2) An economic system based on the primary sector (mainly agriculture), in which trade was gaining ever more importance.
• 3) A political system of absolute monarchy, based on the concentration of power through the King's centralization (a form of government in which decisions were made by one

The Significance of Writing in Human History

The importance of writing lies in its ability to build and store knowledge for the future, acting as a form of memory. Writing was born in Mesopotamia to control state revenue, ensure everyone knows the law, and facilitate administration.

The Division of the Roman Empire

The Western Roman Empire (395 AD)

Under Emperor Honorius, Western Europe developed specific policies and a feudal society. The economy was primarily based on limited agriculture. The dominant religion was Catholicism, and culture was preserved within monasteries.

The Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)

Under Emperor Arcadius, the East maintained a Senate and a society similar to Rome. The economy prioritized agriculture over trade,...

Defining the Environmental Movement

The environmental movement (sometimes called the green movement) is a diverse political, social, and global movement which advocates for environmental protection to meet human needs, including spiritual and social needs. In those terms, environmentalists perform social criticism, more or less implicitly suggesting the need for legal reforms and social awareness in both governments, businesses, and social groups.

Core Values and Democratic Foundations

The environmental movement is united by a commitment to maintain the health of human beings in balance with natural ecosystems; humanity is considered a part of nature and not something separate from it. The existence of environmental organizations is closely tied...

The Old Regime: Political and Social Foundations

The Old Regime refers to the political, economic, and social development in Europe situated between feudalism and the bourgeois revolutions.

Economic System of the Old Regime

Subsistence Agriculture

The primary economic activity was subsistence agriculture, characterized by:

• Low income.
• Self-sufficiency (autarky).
• Three-year crop rotation, including a fallow period.

This system often led to subsistence crises.

Commercial Expansion and Growth

Stability, achieved after conflicts like the Thirty Years' War and formalized by the Treaty of Utrecht, led to economic growth.

Population growth resulted in:

• Increased demand for products.
• Price increases.
• Increased production and profits.

Commercial Companies facilitated...

Theme 1: Geographical Landforms

Mountain: Natural elevation of the land.

Plain: Flat surface of considerable size.

Plateau: Elevation of land characterized by a surface at a certain altitude.

Depression: Large area at an altitude inferior to surrounding relief, often resulting from river erosion.

Continental Shelf: Maritime zone up to 400m that slopes gently.

Island: Portion of land surrounded by water. A set of islands is an archipelago.

Cape: Relief from the coast that extends into the sea.

Gulf: Rounded entry of the sea.

Bay: Sea entry similar to a gulf but smaller and more rounded.

Peninsula: Piece of land surrounded by water on most sides, connected by an isthmus.

Theme 2: Climate Zones

Equatorial: The equatorial rain forest grows in a climate with...

Biomes and Ecosystems

Definition of a Biome

A biome is a collection of animals and plants that live in a given area.

Biomes by Climate Zone

Warm Climate Biomes

• Desert
• Savanna
• Forest

Temperate Biomes

• Deciduous Forest
• Mediterranean
• Steppe
• Prairie

Cold Climate Biomes

• Tundra
• Coniferous Forests

Population Dynamics in Latin America

Spatial Distribution and Structure

Population is distributed unevenly across space, leading to significant inequality. Its structure is defined by sex and age. Population size varies over time due to natural growth and net migration.

Factors Influencing Population Distribution

• Economic opportunities
• Availability of infrastructure
• Means of transport
• Job opportunities
• Access to hospitals or schools
• Natural conditions

Population Density

Population

Historical Stages of Santiago's Development

• First Stage (1541): Foundation of Santiago.
• Mid-Nineteenth Century: First urban reform by Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna.
• Third Stage (1930s): Construction of the civic district.
• Fourth Stage (1939): Pedro Aguirre Cerda's government created the corporation to promote production.
• Fifth Stage (Late 1950s): Urban planning expansion by experts from the Ministry of Public Works.

Rural-to-Urban Migration and Social Impact

A large mass of the population shifted from rural areas to settle on the outskirts of Santiago, giving rise to extensive slums devoid of public services and characterized by poor material conditions. These slums, excluded from public services as a result of an urban segregation policy, suffered from...

1. Tehuelches

Located in Patagonia, from the Straits of Magellan to Reloncaví.

• Politics and Society: Nomadic bands led by a chief. They were considered owners of their territory and practiced polygamy openly.
• Housing: Tolderías (stakes covered with animal skins, in groups of approximately 10). Skins were carried when moving.
• Economy: Hunting guanacos, rheas, and geese (Caiquén). They used bolas, bows, and arrows. Their diet included eggs, meat, and vegetables (calafate).
• Religion: Believed in a supreme being distant from daily life and an evil spirit that caused disease and hunting shortages. The dead were buried in caves or hills, covered with stones.

2. Ona or Selk'nam

Located in the Chilean side of Tierra del Fuego.

• Dress: Leather skins worn

Railway and Steamship

The railroad was originally used in mines to transport ore cars moving on rails. A truly innovative phenomenon was Stephenson's locomotive in 1829, which triggered the steam-powered railway era. The first passenger line connected Manchester and Liverpool in 1830.

The steam engine was also applied to shipping, where steamboats replaced sailing vessels:

• 1807: First steamboats began operating in the United States.
• 1847: Ships began crossing the Atlantic Ocean in just 15 days.

Trade Growth

The Industrial Revolution gave way to a market economy producing goods for increasingly large markets. Improved transport systems permitted an increase in internal trade. Foreign trade also increased considerably by the mid-century.

While some...

1. The Discovery: Causes and Context

A. Drivers of Maritime Expansion

Starting in the fifteenth century, several factors drove European exploration:

• New Trade Routes: Following the fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire to the Turks, Europeans sought alternative routes to the Orient.
• Technical Advances: Improvements in navigation included:
  • Cartography: Development of specialized nautical charts.
  • Instruments: Widespread use of the compass, astrolabe, and quadrant for orientation.
  • Shipbuilding: The emergence of the caravel, a fast ship with high load capacity, featuring both square sails for speed and triangular sails for maneuverability. These ships typically carried a crew of 30 and were equipped with defensive cannons.

B. Portuguese Discoveries

Portugal...