Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

Understanding Economic Globalization

Relations of wealth between different parts of the planet are more intense than ever, and companies tend to act in the global space. Economic globalization has four primary features:

• International trade has grown significantly.
• New production organization: Multinationals (companies present in several countries that conduct part of their activity abroad).
• Movement of money is becoming increasingly intense.
• Trade agreements between countries are becoming increasingly numerous.

Globalization would not have been possible without the Internet.

Key Institutions of the World Economy

There are international institutions and organizations whose actions determine the functioning of the global economy:

• World Bank: Focuses on

Main Sources for the Study of Spain's Population

Census (decennial)

The census reflects the state of the population at a given moment. Its frequency is decennial. The census is carried out by the state statistical services and covers the entire national territory. It is universal (affecting everyone), mandatory and confidential. The census collects information on: place of residence, source and other population attributes.

Padrón (municipal register)

The padrón is maintained by municipal councils and is constantly updated, incorporating the registrations and deregistrations that occur in a municipality, as well as changes affecting those who live there.

Civil registration

Civil registration consists of official offices in municipalities where births...

Luther's Challenge to Papal Authority

Martin Luther's protest against the Roman Church was not fundamentally moral. The grace of God was the grace of God; it could not be bought, sold, or split in indulgences. Luther ironically questioned, "If the Pope has control over the souls in purgatory, why does he not open the gates and let them out?" The papacy, being human and not divine, had misappropriated a prerogative that belongs only to God: the salvation or damnation of souls. The Church had become an end in itself. The Word of God became a captive to the whims of mere humans.

The Birth of Protestants

It was at the Diet of Speyer in 1529 that Christians first began to be called Protestants, due to the protest made by the German princes against...

The 17th Century Crisis: Society and Economy in Spain

Demographic Collapse in the Hispanic Realms

The seventeenth century was characterized by a strong demographic decline, general throughout Europe, but particularly serious in the Hispanic realms. The population suffered a major setback, declining from eight million people in 1600 to seven million in 1700.

Causes included the flow of migration to the New World, casualties caused by war, the expulsion of the Moriscos, and the series of plagues and epidemics that ravaged the country between 1601 and 1685.

Economic Downturn and Financial Ruin

The economic crisis affected several key sectors:

• Agriculture and Rural Depopulation

  The already precarious situation worsened. War, famine, and epidemics caused

The Secondary Sector: Industry and Construction

The secondary sector is an integrated sector composed of industry and construction. Industry, the main activity of this sector, consists of the transformation of raw materials into manufactured goods.

The industrial process is characterized by using machines to work in factories and specialized labor. Industry is an indicator used to measure the basic degree of development of a country.

Factors of Industrial Production

The primary factors of industrial production are raw materials, energy sources, human resources, and capital.

Commodities and Raw Materials

These are the resources extracted from nature and are classified by origin:

• Vegetable
• Mineral resources: These include iron, oil, etc. Mineral resources

Ecosystem Fundamentals

An ecosystem is the set formed by the populations of different species living in a particular place, interconnected with their physicochemical characteristics.

Biotope

The biotope is the physical environment where organisms live, defined by its physicochemical conditions. Key elements include:

• Energy
• Minerals
• Substrate
• Environment and environmental conditions

Biocenosis (Community)

Biocenosis, or a community, consists of populations of different species that live together and establish biotic relationships among themselves.

Ecological Niche and Habitat

• Ecological Niche: The set of strategies developed by a species to obtain food and the ranges of tolerance to various environmental factors. It represents the species' functional role,

Defining History: Time, Space, and Consequences

History is the science that studies the facts of humanity in space and time, determined by analyzing the causes and consequences to better understand our present.

Sources of Historical Information

The aim of historians is to study the past by looking at directly observable traces produced by past societies. This collection is referred to as sources.

• Primary Sources: These include writings, materials, and graphics produced during the period being studied.
• Secondary Sources: These are works done by another historian, analyzing primary sources.

The Major Ages of History

Western history is traditionally divided into several major periods:

The Ancient Age

This period starts with the appearance of writing and...

Species and the Process of Speciation

A species is a group of organisms that share a common set of genes and can produce fertile offspring. Speciation refers to the processes that lead to the formation of a new species from a pre-existing one.

Mechanisms of Reproductive Isolation

The essential condition for speciation is that reproductive isolation occurs, which can happen in various ways, such as geographical isolation. The initial genetic material from each population gradually differentiates through mutation or recombination, driven by the act of natural selection. Thus, each population evolves differently.

The Origin and Evolution of the Human Species

Humans share a common ancestor with other primates. The lineage includes:

• Hominids: The human

The Second Industrial Revolution

Countries involved: USA, Germany, France, Britain, and Japan.

New Industries and New Powers

New power sources replaced coal, namely electricity and oil. During this era, skyscrapers and bridges were built, alongside the development of the electric train, metro, and tram. Key inventions included the telephone and the radio. The chemical industry flourished, producing petroleum, rubber, dyes, artificial coloring, dynamite, and celluloid. Banks became a key element of the economy, acting as lending companies and intermediaries between individuals and businesses.

New Production Systems

• Taylorism: This system divided work into small, specialized tasks. Each worker specialized in a specific task and received a salary proportional

Human Population Studies

1. How is the population studied?

Population Size

This refers to the absolute population. From this, we can calculate the population density (number of inhabitants / surface area).

Population Development

This determines whether the population grows or decreases. We calculate this using natural growth.

• Birth Rate: The number of births occurring in a population.
• Fertility Rate: The estimated average number of children a woman will have in her lifetime. This rate helps us know if generational replacement is assured.
• Mortality Rate: The number of deaths that occur in a population. Infant mortality can also be estimated.

However, to see the real growth, we must also take into account migration.

Population Structure

This involves understanding...