Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Secondary education

Respiratory System Components

• 1 Nose
• 2 Mouth
• 3 Larynx
• 4 Right lung
• 5 Right bronchus
• 6 Diaphragm
• 7 Pharynx
• 8 Trachea
• 9 Left bronchus
• 10 Bronchiole
• 11 Alveoli

Characteristics of Alveoli for Gas Exchange

The epithelium of the alveoli is monostratified, consisting of a single layer of extremely flattened epithelial cells. Similarly, the capillary epithelium consists of a single layer of flat cells, known as the endothelium. The alveoli are covered by a vast network of capillaries to facilitate efficient gas exchange.

How Air Is Cleaned, Moistened, and Warmed

The nose filters inhaled air using hairs that trap particles. Additionally, as air passes through the nasal cavity, it is warmed and moistened.

Understanding the Endothelium

The endothelium forms the thin walls...

Replication

AAGGCCTAGC-TTCCGGATCG

Transcription

AAGGCCTAGC

Translation

How to Read the RNAm to Make Proteins After the Transcribing DNA as RNAm

It exists from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. There, ribosomes are waiting for the RNAm, and the two subunits look for the first codon AUG. The RNAm is read by triplets. All the possible combinations of codons and its corresponding amino acids are called genetic code. Mutation is the alteration of the DNA sequence that can be transmitted to the offspring (if it occurs in gametes).

Addition:

A nucleotide is added

Deletion:

A nucleotide is removed

Substitution:

A nucleotide is changed

Lymphatic System: Components and Functions

The lymphatic system is composed of lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic organs, lymphatic tissues, and lymph nodes.

Key Components of the Lymphatic System

Lymph

Lymph is a transparent liquid composed of lymphocytes and interstitial plasma that is formed when blood plasma is filtered as it travels to the tissues.

Lymphatic Vessels

Lymphatic vessels are closed at one end. Lymphatic capillaries are found in tissues, and they join into bigger conduits known as lymphatic veins that eventually connect with blood veins.

Lymphatic Organs and Tissues

Lymphatic organs and tissues perform several functions, such as producing and maturing lymphocytes and purifying blood. The most important lymphatic organs are the spleen...

Respiration: The Energy Source of Life

Every living cell needs energy. In humans, our cells need energy for:

• Contracting muscles
• Making proteins
• Making new cells
• Cell division
• Producing heat inside the body

All of this energy comes from the food that we eat. The food is digested (broken down) and absorbed from the intestine into the blood. Then, the blood goes to the body, and the cells take the nutrients.

Aerobic Respiration

Most of the time, our cells release energy from glucose by combining it with oxygen.

Aerobic respiration involves chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy.

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration involves chemical reactions in cells...

Nutritional Needs

D(calciferol); it helps the calcification of our bones, it is present in milk and dairy products, fish liver oil. C(ascorbic acid), antioxidant and it keeps mucus normal and healthy, it is present in citrus fruits, strawberries, and vegetables.

Structural

The most important structural nutrients are proteins, although certain lipids, cell membranes, and certain salts such as the ones that form our skeleton.

Energy Needs

Our body needs energy to perform any physical activity. Energy nutrients (carbohydrates and fats) can be obtained from proteins, this process is possible due to cell respiration.

Different Caloric Values

One gram of fat 9 kcal, one gram of carbohydrates 3.75 kcal, one gram of protein 4 kcal.

Basal Metabolic Rate and

Essential Nutrients for Human Health

Nutrients are the biomolecules that make up our bodies. They are categorized as follows:

• Carbohydrates: Cereals, pasta, bread.
• Proteins: Foods derived from animals.
• Mineral salts: Found in all foods.
• Lipids: Oil, butter, bacon.
• Water: Consumed through drinks and food.
• Vitamins: Vegetables and fresh fruit.

Carbohydrates (Glucids)

Carbohydrates provide energy and are divided into two main groups:

• Simple carbohydrates (sugars): These have a sweet taste, are crystalline, and are soluble in water. They include:
  • Monosaccharides: Such as glucose and fructose.
  • Disaccharides: Formed by the bonding of two monosaccharides, such as sucrose and lactose.
• Complex carbohydrates: These are not sweet or crystalline. They are formed by

Neuron Structure and Function

The basic unit of structure and function in the nervous system is called the neuron, or nerve cell. Neurons (NYOO-rons) conduct impulses throughout the nervous system. As shown below, a neuron is a long cell that consists of three regions:

• Cell body
• Dendrites (DEN-drites) are branchlike extensions of the neuron that receive impulses and carry them toward the cell body.
• Axon is an extension of the neuron. It carries impulses away from the cell body and toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Neurons fall into three categories: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

• Sensory neurons carry impulses from the body to the spinal cord and brain.
• Interneurons are found within the brain and spinal cord. They process

All

Long

I-Parkinson Sx(Amimia/Micrgraphia)(dementia/hyperkinesia)II-2nd Park(Neuroleptic)(CO/Arteriscleoris/encephlaiits)III-Syringomyelia(Sensory loss/Wasting/Long tract/Autonomiv)IV-Tx of M Gravis(Ach(-)(CSD)(Plasmophoresis)(thymectomy)V-Foot Drop(L5...)VI-Open Depressed ScullVII-Cerebral artery aneurysm!(gigantic,sacular)VIII-Sterotactic Techniques used for:^^glioblastoma Histology-Lumbar vertebral Fractures:-Sx provoked by brain tumour!-Multifocal Tumours:-Dx for Cerebral artery aneurysm-Cerebral artery naeurysm Clipped by:

-CN 9+10 Dx:-Lesion CN 5(sensory nuclei)-CN 9 lesion!-Malingnant brain glioma

***T/F:

-CS tract(NOT ) onl from Frontal-BS lesion--->controlateral hemiparesis(T)-Bilateral amr paralysis, Central cord(T)-controlateral Focal

Respiratory System: Nutrients and O2

The respiratory system captures oxygen from the air and transfers it into the blood. Cells use oxygen and nutrients to produce energy. Blood removes carbon dioxide (CO2), which is expelled from the body along with water vapor.

Respiratory system function: Gas exchange with the atmosphere.

Nasal Cavity

The nasal cavity is divided into two chambers. Each chamber has an external opening (nostril) and an internal opening to the pharynx (choana). A partition called the nasal septum separates the chambers. The nasal cavity is the entry point for air.

Characteristics

• Abundant capillaries with circulating blood.
• Abundant nooks that allow the air to travel further and remain inside longer, heating the air.
• Internally covered

1. Formation of Living Organisms

The hierarchy of biological organization is as follows: Atom → Chemical Elements → Molecule → Macromolecule → Cell → Tissue → Organs → Systems → Body.

2. Cell Theory

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms. All cells perform three vital functions:

• Nutrition: The set of processes that enables organisms to use and transform substances needed to stay alive.
• Interaction: Involves several systems and organs, including sensory organs, the nervous, endocrine, skeletal, and muscular systems.
• Reproduction: Ensures survival over time through male and female reproductive organs.

Note: All cells originate from pre-existing cells.

3. Cellular Differences and Similarities

Differences

• Number