Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Secondary education

Noxious Agents: Definition and Transmission

Noxious agents (often referred to as *noxa*) are elements or stimuli that can cause damage to an organism, leading to illness or injury. They originate from various services or environmental elements where they are present, and can be transmitted directly or indirectly.

Modes of Transmission

• Direct Transmission

  The transfer of a noxious agent directly from an infected or source individual to a healthy individual without an intermediate host. Examples include: *kisses*, *sexual contact*, *direct physical contact*, or *microdroplets from coughing or sneezing*.

• Indirect Transmission

  Occurs when the pathogenic agent enters the healthy individual through an intermediary. This can involve another living being

Mammalian Gas Exchange: Lungs and Adaptations

Most mammals live on land, meaning they breathe in oxygen through the air. They are at risk of desiccation; therefore, their gas exchange system, the lungs, is found deep inside their bodies to avoid water loss. Air has a relatively high oxygen concentration of approximately 21% and is easy to ventilate.

Mammalian Respiratory Mechanism

Air enters the lungs through the trachea, which then splits into two bronchi, and further separates into smaller bronchioles. These tubes are held open by rings of cartilage. At the end of the bronchioles are the alveoli, the primary sites of gas exchange. Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries, facilitating the diffusion of gases between the air and the blood. Mammals...

7-As nadadeiras dos peixes podem apresentar funções variadas de acordo com adaptações ocorridas ao longo dos tempos. Podem ser usadas para, exceto: Respirar

8- Na reprodução dos vertebrados inferiores, predominam os processos de: Fecundação externa

9-No Aparelho excretor dos peixes, os rins são do tipo: Mesonéfrico

1- Entre os peixes e os primeiros anfíbios foram necessários 40 milhões de anos de lenta e constante evolução.

Todas as alternativas contêm adaptações surgidas durante essa evolução, exceto : Manutenção da pele úmida, Termo regulação.

4- Os únicos animais que apresentam, ao longo da vida, respiração branquial, cutânea e pulmonar são os: Pererecas

7- um animal, vivendo no ambiente terrestre e utilizando a pele...

The cell is the basic unit of which they are made all living things. It is the smallest unit capable of performing all the functions that characterize a living being.

Depending on whether a body is formed by one or more cells can be:

Unicellular organisms. They consist of a single cell that performs all the functions necessary for survival. Sometimes, several single-celled organisms living together colonies. (like amoeba)

Multicellular organisms. Consist of multiple cells that lose the ability to survive alone. Each cell performs a specific task, and all work together to survive the body (such as plants and animals). Our body is composed of a large number of cells. People are multicellular beings.

The cells in our body can have different shape...

Barrera especifica: Acciones que realiza el sist. inmunitario que se pone en funcionamiento cuando el organismo no ha podido evitar la invacion del agente patogeno. hace que la persona adquiera inmunidad. FAGOSITOS.
Barrera inespecifica: son iguales para todos los agentes patogenos y actuan de forma indiscriminada frente a cualquiera de ellos.
1º barrera: evita entrada de germenes. estructural-piel-mucosas-lagrimas-saliva-jugos gastricos-secreciones acidas.
es inespecifica----> intenta que ninguna noxa ingrese, no deja memoria inmune.
2º barrera o respuesta inflamatoria: impide que las noxas que ingresan causen infeccion.(inflamacion-dolor-rubor-color)
Sangre->globulos blancos o leucocitos= fagocitan cualquier noxa.
             ...

ALLOPHONE: Any possible variation in the production of a phoneme. These variations do not involve any change in the meaning of a word. Allophones are alwaysbased on sounds. Eg: /p/ in “property” and /p/ in “option”

PHONETICS: Science related to the study of the sounds of human speech. Thephysical properties of each one influence the variation of sounds they pronounce. Theunit of phonetics is thesound. The speech processes are:production, transmissions and reception.

  2 STANDARD PRONUNCIATIONS: There are two standard and widely accepted pronunciations:

BBC pronunciation (also called Received Pronunciation, RP in the past) United Kingdom. 

GeneralAmericanpronunciation(GenAm) NorthAmerica. 

2 TYPES OF TRANSCRIPTION:

Five Kingdoms of Life

1. Monera

This kingdom includes bacteria and cyanobacteria. Bacteria are prokaryotic, lacking a true nucleus. Key components include the cell membrane, nuclear region (or nucleoid), ribosomes, cytoplasm, and often a cell wall. Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, are thought to have originated atmospheric oxygen around 2 billion years ago through photosynthesis.

Bacteria

Bacteria reproduce asexually, typically through binary fission. Some can form cysts for protection in unfavorable conditions. Cyanobacteria are crucial for various ecological processes.

2. Protists

Protists are unicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes. They possess organelles like the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosomes, centrosome, mitochondria, endoplasmic...

archaea, extremophiles, cyanobacteria, bacteria.