Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Secondary education

Metabolism

Chemical reactions within the cells convert nutrients into energy or convert simple substances into more complex ones.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system consists of the esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, large intestine, small intestine, appendix, and rectum. Cellular respiration is the process carried out in the mitochondria in which oxygen is used to extract energy from nutrients. External respiration, or breathing, is the process carried out in the respiratory system in which oxygen is inhaled from the environment and carbon dioxide is exhaled. The trachea is a tube located in the abdomen with small openings called spiracles. Vertebrate lungs have different structures depending on the species:

• Amphibians: Relatively

The Interaction in Living Things

The interaction functions are those enabling a living being to receive information from the outside to the inside, and respond to it. A stimulus is a change in the environment surrounding a body or inside it.

There are two types of responses:

• Static: There is no movement.
• Dynamic or taxis: Movement occurs in response to a stimulus.

The Interaction in Plants

• Tropism: Movements related to plant growth or its parts. They are slow and irreversible responses.
• Nasties: Rapid and temporary changes in certain parts of the plant.
• Photoperiodism: Responses due to changes in illumination that occur throughout the seasons.

The Relationship in Animals (1)

Many animals have developed sophisticated sensory organs that detect specific...

Adaptation of Xylem to its Function

• Long, made from cells joined end to end to form tubes/vessels
• Cell walls thickened with lignin, a hard, strong material
• Lignin makes cell walls waterproof
• Cells have no cytoplasm or organelles (no cell contents)
• No end-to-end walls between cells
• Pits in the walls for water movement between vessels

Define Transpiration

Loss of water vapor from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapor through the stomata.

Leaves have many more stomata in their lower epidermis than they do in their upper epidermis, and most transpiration happens there.

Factors Affecting Transpiration

• The large internal surface area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between

All cells in your body are surrounded by a liquid environment. They depend on it to stay alive. The internal environment is made up of the interstitial fluid and the circulating fluids. Lymph is the fluid that flows through the lymphatic vessels. It is formed from the remaining interstitial fluid. Blood is the fluid in charge of transporting substances through the inside of blood vessels. Interstitial fluid is the fluid that surrounds every cell. Cells extract nutrients, oxygen and release into the waste and carbon dioxide produced in cell metabolism. The circulatory system connects the system involved in the nutrition function with the interstitial fluid that surrounds the cells in the body. It has 2 systems: the cardiovascular system through...

Female Reproductive System

Key Components and Functions

Uterus

The myometrium, the middle layer of the uterine wall, is responsible for the contractions during childbirth.

Vagina

The vagina is an elastic tube that facilitates penetration during sexual intercourse.

Vulva

The vulva, the external female genitalia, consists of the labia majora, labia minora, and the clitoris, which is responsible for sexual pleasure.

Bartholin's Glands

These glands produce lubricant to facilitate sexual intercourse.

The Ovarian Cycle

Each ovarian cycle lasts approximately 28 days and consists of three phases:

1. Follicular Phase (14 days): An egg cell matures.
2. Ovulation: The mature egg is released from the ovary into the fallopian tube.
3. Luteal Phase (14 days): The corpus luteum,

Protein Structure:

It is a three-dimensional structure. Polypeptides are folded to produce a globular shape. The structure is stabilized by intermolecular bonds between amino acids.

Primary Structure:

Is the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. It is codified by a gene. The sequence of nucleotides in a gene codify the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure:

3-dimensional conformation. It's the formation of beta-pleated and alpha helices, established by hydrogen bonds. It's the bond formed between the carboxyl group and the amino group.

Tertiary Structure:

The polypeptide chain is folded and established by interactions between R groups. The conformation is established by intramolecular bonds and interactions...

FUNGI KINGDOM

Cellular Organization:

Unicellular or multicellular, the cells are eukaryotic, they have no tissues.

Size and Shape:

Unicellular fungi, like yeast, are round or oval and microscopic in size.

Nutrition:

Heterotrophic, many are saprophytes, feeding on organic material from animals or plants.

Lifestyle:

They can be free-living symbionts or parasites.

Reproduction:

Unicellular asexual, multicellular asexual, or sexual.

PROTOCTIST KINGDOM PROTOZOA

Cellular Organization:

Unicellular, they have no tissues.

Size and Shape:

Oval, round, oblong, half-moon. All are microscopic.

Nutrition:

Heterotrophic, feeding on bacteria and algae.

Habitat and Lifestyle:

Most are free-living.

Reproduction:

They reproduce asexually by binary fission.

Movement:

They move by using...

Fetus: developing unborn baby.

Arthritis: Inflammation of the Joints

Arthritis is a condition where the joints become inflamed, swollen, and warm to the touch. It can also cause decreased mobility and joint deformities.

Osteoarthritis: A Common Type of Arthritis

Osteoarthritis is a chronic, non-inflammatory condition characterized by progressive degeneration of the cartilage and joints.

Gout: Painful Inflammation of Joints

Gout is a type of arthritis that involves painful inflammation of the joints. It usually begins abruptly and is accompanied by redness and swelling.

Rheumatism: Similar to Osteoarthritis

Rheumatism is similar to osteoarthritis but typically occurs in individuals between the ages of 25 and 55.

Osteoporosis: Decrease in Bone Mass

Osteoporosis is a condition characterized...