Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Baccalaureate

Microevolution-change in gene in populations over time///Maxroevolution- formation of new species . Homology- similarity due to common ancestor types anatomical development molecular . Hardy- Allele frequency P+Q= 1 genotype frequencies= p^2+2pq+q2=1. P=dominant allele Q=recessive allele P2 homozygous dominant genotype Q2 homozygous recessive genotype. Conditions for Hardy new new mutations no natural selection allele don’t change due to random sampling error no migration random mating. Species is a group of populations that have potential to produce viable fertile offspring they do not breed with other populations successfully. Hybrid fertility is the baby is fertile after mating hybrid viability the offspring doesn’t have potential to...

Cell Organization and Structure

Cells in Humans (Eukaryotic Cells)

Cell Membrane

The outermost membrane, a lipid bilayer, controls what enters and exits the cell. This structure is also used in vaccine production to hold mRNA.

Mitochondria (Mitochondrion)

The powerhouse of the cell, responsible for ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) production. The ATP production rate depends on the folds of cristae. Some cells, like liver cells, have multiple mitochondria. The mitochondrion contains a matrix, a thick liquid with a high concentration of enzymes that facilitate ATP production.

Lysosome

The cell's recycle bin.

Golgi Apparatus

Packages proteins for transport in and out of cells.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Creates proteins.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Creates...

Proteins

  

∑ - Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides.

• Amino acids are then combined to create large polypeptides through condensation reactions which produce many molecules of water (i.e. polypeptides - Hemoglobin and Insulin).

B  Skill: Drawing molecular diagrams to show the formation of a peptide bond.

• Basic dipeptide shown to the right. Students should practice drawing  with a variety of different amino acids (different “R” groups)
  
• Every peptide bond should be between the NH2 (amine group) and the COOH (carboxyl group). One H comes from the NH2 and an –OH group comes from the –COOH group to produce H2O
  
• Condensation reaction
  

∑ - There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes.

Fundamental Knowledge Challenge

Earth Science & Geology

Formation of Smooth Stones

Which of these is the best explanation of how a smooth, round stone becomes smooth? It was in a stream for a long time.

Key Processes of the Water Cycle

Processes of the water cycle include: Evaporation, condensation, sublimation, and so on.

Formation of Water Droplets

The process by which water droplets form is: Condensation.

Astronomy & Physics

Defining Astronomical Bodies

Any astronomical body that revolves around a larger body is called a: Satellite.

Understanding Friction

Friction is the force that: Opposes motion between two surfaces.

Measuring Liquid Resistance to Flow

When scientists measure a liquid's resistance to flow, they are measuring its: Viscosity.

Biology

Difference between primary and secondary sex characteristics:

The primary are the sexual organs which are born with and the secondary are the physical characteristics developed during puberty

Reproduction:

Reproduction is the creation of new individuals

Explain the journey of sperm to the ovum:

After being secreted by the penis through the urethra, the sperm go from the vagina to the uterus. Then, they divide into 2 groups and go to each fallopian tube. If there’s an ovum, one of these single sperm will fertilize it, and they will form a zygote, divide and become a morula and later a blastocyst. On the 7th day, the blastocyst implants in the endometrium

Structure:

Respiratory System

Which Nerve Slows the Heart Down?

The Vagus Nerve

Function of Heart Valves

Heart valves ensure one-way blood flow.

Atrioventricular Valves

• Tricuspid valve (3 cusps): Located between the right atrium and right ventricle.
• Bicuspid (mitral) valve (2 cusps): Located between the left atrium and left ventricle.
• Chordae Tendineae: Also known as 'heart strings'.

Semilunar Valves

• Pulmonary semilunar valve: Directs blood from the right ventricle to the pulmonary trunk.
• Aortic semilunar valve: Directs blood from the left ventricle to the aorta.

Arteries vs. Veins

Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, while veins carry oxygen-poor blood back from the body to the heart.

Three Functions of Blood

Blood has three main functions:

1. Transportation:

Muscle Fiber

Elongated cells that make up skeletal muscle tissue

Striation

Light and dark stripes in which skeletal muscle fibers are grouped

Fascicle

Dense bundles in which skeletal muscle fibers are grouped

Voluntary Muscle

Muscle that are consciously controlled

Involuntary Muscle

Smooth muscles that cannot be consciously controlled

Myofibril

Thread-like structures found in skeletal muscle fiber

Myosin

Thick filaments that make up myofibril

Actin

Thin filaments that make up myofibril

Z Line

Structure to which actin filaments are anchored

Sarcomere

The region from one Z line to the nerve

Tendon

Fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscles to bone

Flexor

Muscle that bends a joint

Extensor

Muscle that straightens a joint

Muscle Fatigue

Physiological inability of a

Key Concepts in Microbial Pathogenicity

• Pathogenicity: The ability of a microorganism to cause disease.
• Virulence: The extent or degree of pathogenicity.
• Normal Microbiota: Resident microbes, often referred to as commensals.
• Infection: The invasion of normally sterile tissues by microorganisms.
• Pathogen: An infectious agent capable of causing disease.
• Infectious Disease: A disease caused by infection by a pathogen.
• Colonization: The process of establishing a population of organisms in a host.
• Resident Colonizer: An organism that establishes a long-term presence in the host.
• Transient Presence: A short-term presence of an organism in the host.

Major Factors in the Development of an Infection

1. Adherence: Initial Attachment to Host Cells

   Adherence is crucial

Brain Anatomy and Functions

The human brain is a complex organ, the control center of the nervous system. Below are key parts and their vital roles:

Cerebral Cortex

The outermost layer of neural tissue that covers the brain, responsible for higher-level functions like thought, language, and memory.

Corpus Callosum

A large bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres, facilitating communication and influencing logic and creativity.

Hypothalamus

A crucial part of the brain that links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, regulating essential bodily functions.

Thalamus

A major relay station for sensory information, also regulating sleep, alertness, and consciousness.

Midbrain

Involved in motor movement, particularly