Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Biology for Baccalaureate

Talocrural Joint (Tibiotalar) Kinematics

Osteokinematics (Movement Ranges)

• Dorsiflexion: 10º to 20º
• Plantar Flexion: 40º

Arthrokinematics (Joint Surface Movement)

• Dorsiflexion: The talus slips posteriorly and medially. The fibula moves upward. The axis of dorsiflexion is oblique, passing through the tips of the two malleoli.
• Plantar Flexion: The talus slips anteriorly and laterally. The fibula moves downward.

Joint Stability Mechanisms

The talus does not rotate within the tibiofibular mortise. It is more stable in dorsiflexion than in plantar flexion because its anterior leading edge is wider.

Injury to the interosseous membrane or the ligament connecting the tibia and distal fibula can change the distribution of pressure, potentially leading to...

Differences Between Respiration and Photosynthesis

Cellular respiration occurs in cells (specifically the mitochondria), and photosynthesis occurs in plant cells (specifically the chloroplasts).

Respiration is a catabolic process, while photosynthesis is anabolic.

Reactants and Products

• Respiration Reactants: Glucose, fatty acids, and proteins.
• Photosynthesis Reactants: CO₂, water, nitrates, and sulfates.
• Respiration Products: CO₂ and water.
• Photosynthesis Products: Glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids.

Energy Sources and Processes

The energy used in respiration is chemical energy, and in photosynthesis, it is light energy. The energy generation process in respiration is phosphorylation, and in photosynthesis, it is photophosphorylation.

Respiration...

Common Diseases: An Overview

Antibiotics

Antibiotics: Penicillin, Aminoglycosides, Cephalosporins, Chloramphenicol.

Bacterial Resistance

Unnecessary use of antibiotics favors the development of bacterial resistance. Antibiotics will not kill bacteria caused by viruses. The appearance of antibiotic resistance is not just due to clinical administration to people but also the massive use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine and breeding. Bacterial resistance emerges because all organisms have slight genetic differences.

AIDS

AIDS is caused by a lethal virus with RNA. It destroys the immune system, which is supposed to protect the body. Transmission occurs through bodily fluids, such as through sexual contact or sharing syringes or blades. It is not...

From Fixism to Biological Evolution

Fixism was proposed by Georges Cuvier. This theory considers all species to be independent and remain unchanged throughout time since their creation.

Lamarckism: The First Evolutionary Theory

Lamarckism is the first theory of biological evolution, developed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. This theory defends the following claims:

• There is a transformation of bodies from simple to more complex forms.
• The exercise of an organ produces development and perfection.
• Acquired characters are inherited to ensure better adaptation.

Darwinism and Natural Selection

In London, Charles Darwin presented a new theory of evolution based on these principles:

• Evolution is a struggle for survival because there are more living beings than available

Alright, let’s make Cell Structure & Cell Theory feel alive—less textbook, more story 👇

What is a Cell? The Mini City of Life

A cell is the tiniest unit of life—like a mini city that keeps everything running.
Your body isn’t one big thing; it’s a community of trillions of cells, each doing its own job but working together so you can breathe, think, move, and feel.

The Three Fundamental Rules of Cell Theory

Cell theory is basically biology’s ground rules. Three simple but powerful ideas:

1. All Living Things Are Composed of Cells

From a tiny bacterium to a giant banyan tree to you—everything alive is built from cells.
Some organisms have one cell, others have millions or trillions, but no cell = no life.

2. The Cell Is the Basic

The Human Digestive System: An Introduction

The digestive system transfers organic nutrients, vitamins, minerals, and water from the foods we eat to the internal environment. Upon entering the body, food moves through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and the nutrients are absorbed and transported to the circulatory system where they are utilized.

Net Gain to the Body

Food and air are the primary sources of net gain to the body.

Distribution within the Body

Nutrients and substances are distributed throughout the body via the GI tract, lungs, storage deposits, and metabolism.

Net Loss from the Body

Excretion from the body occurs via the lungs, GI tract, kidneys, and skin.

Epithelial Cells

Epithelial cells separate compartments and are crucial in the digestive...

pBR322 was the first artificial cloning vector created in the laboratory by Francisco Bolivar and Raymond L. Rodriguez. Compared to its pUC counterparts, pBR322 is larger in size, resulting in a slower rate of replication. This E. coli cloning vector contains an origin of replication (ori), restriction sites, and antibiotic-resistant genes.

pBR322 is a widely used cloning vector in E. coli with significant applications in molecular cloning.

pBR322 Nomenclature

• p: Plasmid
• BR: Bolivar and Rodriguez
• 322: Numerical designation

Constructed in 1977 in the laboratory of Herbert Boyer at the University of California, San Francisco, it was the first synthetic plasmid designed for use as a cloning vector. As one of the most studied plasmids, it is 4,362 base...

Pioneers of Microbiology

• Louis Pasteur: Father of microbiology.
• Alexander Fleming: Discovered penicillin.
• Robert Koch: Proposed the germ theory of disease.
• Joseph Lister: Introduced the use of antiseptics in surgery.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic cell: Small and simple without any membrane-bound organelles; contains peptidoglycan.
• Eukaryotic cell: Larger and more complex; contains mitochondria but no peptidoglycan.

Bacterial Cell Structures

Bacteria: The most abundant organisms on Earth, usually playing a positive role.

External Structures

• Glycocalyx (sugar coat): An adhering layer of polysaccharides and proteins that protects against dehydration and serves as a source of food.
• Biofilms: Microcolonies of bacteria attached to surfaces.
• Flagella:

Human Reproduction: Process of Creating New Life

The process by which humans create new beings involves several complex stages.

Key Aspects of Sexual Reproduction

• Sexual Reproduction: Fusion of the ovum (female gamete) and the sperm (male gamete) to form the Zygote.
• Genetic Material: A mixture of the parents' genetic material.
• Internal Fertilization: Occurs inside the female reproductive system.
• Viviparous: Embryonic development occurs inside the female’s reproductive system.

Stages of Human Development

• Childhood: Birth to Adolescence

  Changes include great motor (control over the body), physical (size), emotional, and cognitive (speaking, reading, writing skills) development. Primary sex characteristics of the male and female reproductive systems