Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Biological Processes and Plant Responses

• Photosynthesis: When green plants use sunlight to synthesize nutrients.
• Cellular Respiration: When cells break down glucose.
• Stimulus: A detectable change in the internal or external environment that provokes a response in an organism or cell.
• Tropism: The growth of a plant in response to a stimulus such as sunlight, gravity, or touch.

Understanding Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

Combines genetic material from two cells (sperm and egg).

Asexual Reproduction

Does not involve meiosis or fertilization.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

• Fission: Division in prokaryotes like E. coli.
• Mitotic Cell Division: Division in unicellular eukaryotes like amoebas.
• Budding: Growth on the parent's body, seen in Hydra and yeast.
• Regeneration:

Vocabulary: War and Conflict Terminology

Key Nouns Related to Conflict

Allies

Aliados

Asymmetric Warfare

Guerra descompensada

Atrocities

Actos violentos

Border

Frontera

Civilian Government

Gobierno civil

Coalition

Coalición

Guerrilla Raids

Ataques inesperados por gente no militar

Insurgency

Insurgencia

Invasion

Invasión

Leader

Líder

Occupation

Ocupación

Security

Seguridad

Special Forces

Fuerzas especiales

Terrorist-Training Camps

Campos de entrenamiento de terroristas

Terrorists

Terroristas

Troops

Tropas

An Ambush

Una emboscada

Attack

Ataque

Forces

Fuerzas

Power

Poder / Potencia

The Ultimatum

Un ultimátum

War

Guerra

Essential War and Conflict Collocations

• Occupy a country
• Supply arms (to)
• Station troops (in)
• Make a breakthrough
• Break the stalemate
• Inflict casualties
• Put up resistance
• Suffer

Lexer Implementation (lexer.l)

%{ #include "y.tab.h" %} %%% "+" { return PLUS; } "-" { return MINUS; } "*" { return MULTIPLY; } "/" { return DIVIDE; } "%" { return MODULUS; } "(" { return LPAREN; } ")" { return RPAREN; } [0-9]+ { yylval.num = atoi(yytext); return NUMBER; } [a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]* { yylval.id = strdup(yytext); return IDENTIFIER; } [ \t\n] { /* ignore whitespace */ } . { return yytext[0]; } %%%

Parser Implementation (parser.y)

%{ #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <string.h> void yyerror(const char *s); int yylex(); int temp_count = 0; int label_count = 0; void gen(char op, int arg1, int arg2, int result) { printf("%d: %c, %d, %d, %d\n", label_count++, op, arg1, arg2, result); } int new_temp() { return

English Grammar

Verb Tenses

Past Tense Transformations

• Present Simple (eats/eat) → Past Simple (ate)
• Don't/Doesn't → Didn't
• Present Continuous (am, is, are + v ing) → Past Continuous (was, were + v ing)
• Past Simple (-ed or irregular) → Past Perfect (had + past participle)
• Present Perfect (have, has + past participle) → Past Perfect
• Past Perfect (had + past participle) → Past Perfect
• Past Continuous (was, were + v ing) → Past Perfect Continuous (had + been + v ing)
• Present Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
• Past Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
• Future: Will + infinitive → Would + infinitive
• Can → Could + infinitive
• Must/Have to → Had to + infinitive
• May → Might + infinitive

Changes in Reported Speech

• Now → Then
• Today

Macrostructure

Theme: This is the topic sentence that summarizes the main idea. Usually at the beginning.

Rheme: Arguments that support the theme. In the middle.

Thesis Statement: Restatement of the initial idea. Normally at the end.

Microstructure

Lexicon

• Formal or informal language (e.g., Provides, expand).
• Attributive adjectives such as “logically and psychologically satisfying conclusion”.
• Semantic fields (Campos semánticos).
• Elements that are not formal (Common words like 'too' instead of 'moreover'; 'quite' similar). The combination of formal register with more accessible language suggests that this is an informative text.
• Main statements (topic sentences and thesis statements) use the copulative verb 'to be' which indicates that the statement

The thirty-nine steps/ John Buchan

1)match a number from A with B: 1many peopl.. E because the thought...//2 sir walter..C until he heard..//3 the young hotel...A because nobody..//4 when sir Walter.. B he was very happy//5 When hannay.. D he wasn't certain..

2)Why did Hannay hide in Scotland? - because he prefered open spaces after his time in Africa, and his family also came from Scotland.

3) True or False: A) scudder killed..F/B) Scudder's enemies..F/C) hannay spoke..F/D) While the two..F/E)the road..T/F)Marmaduke jopley..T/G)the roadman stole..F/H)lord alloa didn't..T/I)hannay played cards..T/J)the police were..T

4)How did hannay knows correct house? - hannay used the information to find the location where the spies would leave in England.... Continue reading "I is correct ii is correct" »

1. Verb Tenses

will have taken // had never seen // has been typing // will stay // is flying // was feeding // floats // will be waiting // met

2. Indefinite Pronouns

something // nobody // everyone // anything // anywhere

3. Pronouns and Possessives

his // him // mine // me // her // us // our // themselves // its // mine

4. Gerunds and Infinitives

shouting // to feed // smoking // to study // playing // getting up // working // to go

5. Conditional Sentences

• If I had had your phone, I would have called you.
• If you study hard, you will get good marks.
• If I hadn't advised you, you would have bought that house.
• If she hadn't driven too fast, she wouldn't have had an accident.

6. Passive Voice

A lot of money has been given to him // He has been given a lot... Continue reading "English Grammar Exercises and Key Concepts" »

Distinctive Feature Theory

Distinctive Feature Theory challenges Phoneme Theory (PT) by focusing on the features that compose phonemes, rather than the phonemes themselves. This approach questions the validity of the phoneme concept, arguing that speech is not simply a series of discrete sounds.

Natural Class: A set of sounds sharing phonetic features, affected by the same environment, and having the same effect on surrounding sounds.

Major Class Features

• Vowels: [+SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [-CONSONANTAL] - form the syllable nucleus.
• Glides: [-SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [-CONSONANTAL].
• Sonorant Consonants (nasals and liquids): [+/-SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [+CONSONANTAL].
• Obstruents: [-SYLLABIC], [-SONORANT], [+CONSONANTAL].

Consonant Features

• Voice: [+/-VOICE]

Fundamental Economic Concepts

• Consumers: People who buy goods and services.
• Trade-off: The act of giving up one goal to achieve another.
• Balance of Trade: A nation that exports more than it imports.
• Interest: A signal of upcoming changes in the economy.
• Price Index: A comparison of the general price level.
• Civilian Labor Force: All people aged 16 and older.
• Demand Schedule: A table showing the amount of a good or service demanded.
• Demand: The amount of a good or service consumers are willing to buy.
• Cartel: A group that acts together to control a market.
• Business Cycles: Fluctuations in economic activity, excluding depressions.
• Principle of Diminishing Utility: As consumers acquire more, satisfaction decreases.
• Product Differentiation: When a business