Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Social sciences for Baccalaureate

ITALIAN UNIFICATION:
In 1815 Italy was divided into mixed states (Lombardy and Veneto) under the control autriaco. In 1830 he formed the Risorgimento advocated by Giuseppe Mazzini. This posed a democratic republic which would arrive by the popular uprising. In Piedmont constitutional rule was consolidated under the Savoy monarchy. His chief govierno, Cavour promoted uan strategy for unification. King Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour govierno chief got these strategies by joining with France to defeat the Austrian annexation of Lombardy and the central states, acambio would cede Nice and Savoy to France.
Giussepe Garibaldi began the conquest of the south and a small army with liquid the Bourbon regime. Garibaldi resigned from the Republican perspective...

The Jacobin Convention and the Reign of Terror

In early July 1793, the Jacobins arrested and executed key Girondin leaders and inaugurated the Jacobin phase of the convention, the most radical stage of the revolution. They approved a new Constitution (1793) that established popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage. Taking advantage of exceptional circumstances, they established a revolutionary government that suspended constitutional guarantees and initiated a policy known as the Terror, whose main objective was to eliminate the internal and external enemies of the Revolution and satisfy the more radical grassroots.

The Committee of Public Safety, controlled by Robespierre, concentrated all the powers and took exceptional measures: arrests,...

Production Perspectives

The production and distribution of goods and services involve multiple tasks and functions, requiring an organizational instrument to coordinate the whole process. This is the company's role. There are several perspectives on the production of these services.

Economic Overview

Production is a process that meets families' needs by developing products based on factors of production (natural resources, labor, capital) employed by companies.

Functional-Utilitarian Perspective

Production practices add value to things by making them more useful than they were before. For example, in manufacturing a shirt, the components are fabric and yarn. Converting these materials into a shirt requires productive activity, utilizing a specific...

Economic Liberalism and the Capitalist Revolution

The Industrial Revolution and the capitalist revolution allowed the passage to the liberal economy. Its principles were: private property, free enterprise, free contract, free system regulation, and the free market (liberalisme econòmic).

Basis of Liberalism

The main theoretician was Adam Smith, who defended individual initiative and private enterprise. He held that wealth came from work, and that if the economy were left to operate freely, individual initiative would lead to growth. Pessimistic liberalism also arose. David Ricardo and John Stuart Mill drew up the final synthesis of classical liberalism.

The Capitalist Economic System

Its rules of operation were based on the theories of economic...

The National Convention: Key Phases

The New Assembly (September 1792)

The National Convention, established on September 20, 1792 (the day of the Battle of Valmy), immediately abolished the Monarchy and proclaimed the Republic.

The Girondin Convention

The government initially fell into the hands of the Girondins, who adopted a moderate position that displeased the masses. At the Convention, the Girondins faced several problems, notably confronting the radical Montagnards (the voice of the most radical elements). Many members supported either faction.

• The first major issue concerned King Louis XVI.
• The Girondins were ultimately pressured by Jacobins and popular forces to judge and condemn the King for treason.
• Louis XVI was guillotined on January 21,

Government Practices and Royal Power

Government practices to govern all saw kings doing two things: they tried to extend control over territory and were cooperating with those who held power. They created new officials for the purpose of securing royal power at the local level. The kings had to look for an especially powerful alliance with the nobility; they had to ensure decisions were taken that aligned with the interests of the monarch.

Kings were forced to maintain the power and autonomy of the nobility and feudal lords. The clergy continued without paying taxes, so all royal finances fell on the village plan, which severely restricted the state's income. Even justice was administered only by the king.

Enlightened Despotism and State Reform

Enlightened...

Textual Analysis

A text is a unit of information generated within a specific context, influenced by both verbal and nonverbal elements. These contextual circumstances initiate the communication process.

Pragmatic, Textual, and Linguistic Aspects

Pragmatic aspects: Analyze data from the context, including the type of transmitter and receiver, as well as the subject's intention.

Textual aspects: Analyze data about the organization of the text (text type, genre, information progression) and the relationship between its parts (reference and connection).

Linguistic aspects: Examine the use of language in different areas (phonetic, morphosyntactic).

Textual Properties

• Adaptation: The relationship of the text with the communicative context (whether the register

Social Structure of the Ancien Régime

The Ancien Régime consisted of three social classes: the Nobility, the Clergy, and the Third Estate. The Nobility and Clergy enjoyed many privileges: legal, political, and fiscal. The Third Estate shared the common characteristic of lacking rights and privileges.

The Third Estate included:

• A small middle class of large merchants and tenants of large landholdings.
• Officials (functionaries).
• The largest groups: the urban working classes and the peasantry.

Core Principles of the Enlightenment

Although the Enlightenment was not exclusively a philosophical movement, nor did it develop at the same level or time across all European countries, it adhered to certain general principles:

• Total confidence in Reason.
• Freedom

The Cultural Animal: Human Nature & Culture

The study of human nature begins with its biological constitution. However, a necessary opening to culture gives rise to what we call the cultural animal. Cultural adaptation introduces an effective way of providing symbolic language and techniques, which allow for orientation in the world. The world of culture diminishes the fear of the accidental and unintended.

Understanding the Concept of the Individual

An individual is any complete being that belongs to a species. This term is often used synonymously with 'human being' because each human is unique and unrepeatable.

Individualism and Its Societal Limits

According to the theory of possessive individualism, every person owns their own being and capabilities,...

The Spanish Restoration and Cánovas del Castillo

The Spanish Restoration began following the Sagunto Pronouncement of 1874. The primary architect of the new political system was Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. Among the key objectives of this era, we can highlight:

• 1st: Establishing a moderate regimen to eliminate radical political decisions.
• 2nd: The pacification of the country by addressing three open conflicts: the Carlist War, the Cuban War, and the Cantonalist movement.
• 3rd: The approval of a new constitution.

Seeking the pacification and stability of the country, several measures were implemented, including the replacement of senior officials, the maintenance of public order, and the elimination of civil marriages.

The Constitution of 1876: