Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for University

John Locke (1632–1704): Father of Liberalism

John Locke is considered the father of political liberalism. His most important work is Two Treatises of Government.

The Social Contract and Consent of the Governed

The main idea of Locke's philosophy is that the power of rulers is based on the consent of the governed.

The State of Nature (Locke)

For Locke, civil government arises through a social contract. His State of Nature is characterized by:

• Complete Equality: No one is above anyone else.
• Perfect Freedom: Individuals can do whatever they want with themselves and their properties.
• Natural Law Limit: This freedom has a limit—the obligation not to harm others.

Men leave the State of Nature because not all individuals adhere to natural law; some violate...

The Nature of Existence and Tangible Property

Things that have an actual existence are those that are mandatory for the senses and the mind. This includes tangible things such as solids, liquids, and vapors.

Understanding Personal Wealth and Heritage

From the concept of personal wealth, we postulate that people have only heritage. Wealth is considered an attribute of personality and is composed of all heritage assets, which include:

• Assets and rights (positive value)
• Liabilities (loads or obligations)

When Livestock Becomes Real Estate

Herds, flocks, and other livestock (both tame and wild) are classified as real estate when they are not separated from their pastures and farms.

Classification of Assets: Divisible and Indivisible

The difference between...

Marx's Solution to Industrialization and Urbanization

Karl Marx argued that the moral and practical problems caused by the bourgeoisie during industrialization and urbanization would ultimately be addressed through a workers' revolution.

He posited that eventually, the proletariat (the working class) would rise up and seize the means of production. This revolutionary act would lead to workers receiving an equal share of the profits, thereby resolving the inherent inequalities of the capitalist system.

The Role of the Hegelian Dialectic in Societal Progress

According to Marx, society progresses through class struggle, a dynamic process rooted in the Hegelian dialectic. This conflict ultimately results in the overthrow of the old economic system...

Positivism and Transcendentalism: A Philosophical Comparison

1. Defining Truth and Reality

Positivism's View of Truth

• Truth is derived entirely from the senses.
• Only empirical sources are valid for constructing scientific theory.
• Rejects non-empirical methods of knowledge, such as Theology, Religion, and Metaphysics.

Transcendentalism's View of Truth

• The empirical appearance of things is secondary; it merely wraps objects.
• The spiritual essence is paramount.
• The world is viewed as a vast symbol conveying a spiritual or divine message.

2. Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

Positivist Methodology

• Knowledge must begin with empirical information gathered from the material appearance of things.
• Hypotheses must be rigorously tested and demonstrated.

Transcendentalist

Family Business: The concept of a family enterprise is determined by the family as the substratum of the venture. Its characteristics arise from the presence and participation of a family group in the property layer and in the controlling decision-making bodies of the organization. A third feature is the attribute of a natural inclination to ensure the continuity of the family business. The aim of survival is the most visible weakness, since the lack of a well-suited legal framework means the family must face the main challenge with the assistance of standard organizational tools provided by the legal framework.

Family bonds contribute to a strong sense of motivation and involvement, which translates into high profitability and a solid advantage:...

Scientific and Architectural Prowess

Architectural Detail and Ingenuity

It is amazing to imagine the detail that the Mayans were able to create in their architecture with only primitive tools.

Advanced Calendar and Timekeeping

For the Mayans, science and religion were intrinsically linked. Time was extremely important, and their agriculture and religious ceremonies required a system that could accurately record time. That need for structure is probably the reason that the Mayans developed such an amazingly accurate calendar.

Mathematical and Astronomical Discoveries

Through their profound knowledge of astronomy and mathematics, they calculated the lunar cycle, predicted eclipses, and formulated a unique calendar system that was remarkably accurate....

Understanding Grammar: Rules and Their Rationale

Grammar and rules are undoubtedly synonymous in the minds of learners and teachers. The association between them is powerful because the partnership has been fruitful. Rules have served language learning by capturing generalizations about morphosyntactic regularities in a language. Rules also allow material developers to work with "right-sized" chunks of language, helping students deal in an orderly and systematic way with the grammar of the target language. Most language teachers work with rules in some way, even if the rules are not stated in formal metalinguistic terms.

The Rationale Behind Grammar Rules

It is important for learners not only to know the rules, but also to understand why they...

Lesson 6: Responsible Business Clauses

6.1 ESG in Contracts

Why Include ESG Clauses?

Investors and buyers demand them; they protect the brand, ensure compliance with regulatory law, and follow OECD/UNGP recommendations.

Risk-Based Due Diligence

Due diligence must be based on risk. It involves identifying, preventing, and mitigating ESG risks in supply chains and operations (activities).

CISG Compliance

Include these in Article 35 quality standards; if the party does not comply with ESG, HRDD, or ABC standards, they are considered non-conforming. You must specify these clearly, ensuring they are measurable and auditable. They also need to be foreseeable under Article 74.

UNIDROIT Principles

These principles help clarify and execute contracts correctly:...

On Self-Knowledge and the Origin of Moral Prejudices

We know that we are strangers to ourselves; we ourselves are strangers to ourselves. This is a good foundation. We have not sought ever—how could it happen that one day we were to meet? It is rightly said: 'Where your treasure is, there your heart is.' Our treasure is where the hives are based on our knowledge. We are always coming to them—winged animals born and honey gatherers of the spirit—we take care of itself heart of one thing: of "bringing home" something.

In regard, moreover, to life, the so-called "experience"—who of us has even been serious enough for them? Or had enough time? I fear that in such cases we have ever paid good attention "to the question." It just happens that...

EM Parables: Storytelling in Education

Parables (stories told) are an excellent educational tool. They suggest rather than impose. Stories and practical actions are better guides than rigid rules. Principles and empirical evidence support this approach.

Partial MS Approaches: Dilemmas and Narratives

1. Dilemmas focus on problem-solving, not character description. The protagonist's virtues are fundamental. The goal is finding a solution, not detailed descriptions.

2. Dilemmas demonstrate social characteristics.

3. Dilemmas are open-ended. Each person decides the conclusion.

In stories versus dilemmas, adults convey a judged narrative.

Contrarily, non-directive education posits that adults should not impose values. "Every child is a moral philosopher...