Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for University

Heraclitus: The Concept of Logos and Becoming

In the philosophy of Heraclitus, the Logos is the reason that dominates the universe and makes possible the existence of order and regularity in the alternation of things. It is also something within us that should serve as a guide for our conduct and as a tool for knowledge.

The Logos as a Universal Principle

According to Heraclitus, the universe consists of opposites in life's opposition, which is a condition of the becoming of things. However, these opponents are driven to harmonic syntheses by the Logos: the "normative principle of the universe and of man." Heraclitus considered reality as essentially mobile and flowing, in a state of becoming.

The Symbolism of Fire and Evolution

Evolution is permanent...

Research Methodology Concepts

Defining Types of Research

1. Consists of experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to obtain new knowledge about the foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without considering any particular application or use.

   Answer: Basic Research

2. Consists of original work undertaken to acquire new knowledge; however, it is directed primarily towards a specific practical purpose.

   Answer: Applied Research

3. The term R&D (Research and Development) is identified with the term R&D, as used in the text The Social Science Research: Practical Suggestions on the Process by Raimundo Abello Llanos.

Formulating the Research Problem

4. Addressing social reality scientifically requires the researcher to ensure:

   Answer: Intersubjectivity

5. These

In paragraph 2, Article 19 No. 9, provisions are made for the protection of free, equal access to the promotion, protection, and restoration of health and rehabilitation of the individual. This encompasses the following:

a) Promotion:

The state meets this responsibility through the implementation of public policies aimed at improving the quality of preventive lives for people. This involvement is required not only from public officials but also from the private sphere, which should participate in the promotion policies generated by the state. An example is the plan implemented in 2004 by the Ministry of Health, called the "Healthy Living Plan of the State of Chile," which fundamentally seeks to stop risk factors through several measures. These...

Understanding Logic and Reasoning

Early Concepts and Ambiguity

• Modes: 1: AB, 2: AB, 3: AB, 4: AB
• Relationships: AC, CA, BC, CB, CA, CB, CA, CB
• Abstract Thought: "A-whole-E is no. Or is it some? Some I is not."

An example of ambiguity: "The pig of the child" (Does this mean "The pig belongs to the child," "The pig is the child," or "The child is dirty like a pig?").

Signs and Symbols: Semiotic Entities

Signs and symbols are semiotic entities with distinct properties. A sign is defined by the relationship between the signifier, the signified, and the interpretant, while a symbol is a graphical representation that can be part of a larger sign system. Both convey ideas effectively in pre-literate or functionally illiterate cultures. However, their utility...

The Fundamentals of Act-Utilitarianism

Act-utilitarianism is a utilitarian theory. It is the belief that an action becomes morally right when it produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Utilitarianism is a theory developed by John Stuart Mill, who was one of the most influential figures in the history of classical liberalism. Mill was a proponent of Utilitarianism, which is known as an ethical philosophy or idea in which the happiness of the greatest number of people in society is considered the greatest good.

Consequentialism and the Hedonist Principle

Utilitarianism is also a version of Consequentialism, which is a theory that the moral and ethical rightness of an action depends on the consequences of that action. The moral...

The Research Project

The Role of the Research Project

The role of a research project is to provide a comprehensive and specific framework for how an investigation should be conducted. It outlines what is to be known, how that knowledge will be acquired, and what insights are intended to be gained.

Defining the Research Project

The Project as a Research Map

The project serves as the map of the research: it charts the planned path to navigate the complex realities of the social phenomenon under investigation. When presented as a proposal to a sponsoring institution or a funding agent, it represents a comprehensive commitment from the researcher to the empirical study and the social phenomenon being addressed.

Methodological Design in Research

The term...

Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham is the founder of utilitarianism, or “the ethics of happiness.” When Bentham was a guest on my Almanac page, he outlined his moral science of hedonism. What is hedonism?

"The community is a fictitious body, composed of the individual persons who are considered as constituting as it were its members. The interests of the community then is, what? -- the sum of the interests of the several members who compose it."

- Jeremy Bentham (1748 -- 1832)

• Society is just the sum of individuals in that society.
• For individuals, right actions are those which lead to happiness and avoid pain.
• When it comes to “goods,” more is preferred to less. “Most is best” – this is the idea of maximization.
• Majority rule is the basis

Researchers have identified five parameters that are consistently repeated, known as psychomotor expression parameters. Analyzing these indices provides valuable insight into the evolving expressiveness of a child. These parameters include:

1. Space

We must observe how a child relates to their environment to identify patterns of development. Key considerations include:

• Does the child utilize the entire space or only a specific area?
• Do they establish their own boundaries or invade the space of others?
• How do they manage spatial relationships with peers?
• Do they require significant space or minimal room to function?
• Does the child respect the boundaries of the room?

2. Time

Observing a child's relationship with time reveals how they structure their experiences:...

Spanish Enlightenment: Education as the Cornerstone of Progress

Antecedents

Francis Bacon and Empiricism

The basis of Empiricism is that our knowledge comes from experience. It does not come from the principles and dogmas of authorities. Bacon wrote The New Atlantis, a utopia based on the practice of the new science of the House of Salomon.

René Descartes and Rationalism

Born in France, he passed away in Sweden. "I think, therefore I am." The "mind" or "reason" was the main source of truth. Only facts that are clear to the mind are true (rationalism). As a result, the "rational ethic" appeared.

Isaac Newton

He was English. His Universal Law of Gravitation, published in 1687, changed the conception of the Universe. The world can be explained through...

Saint Thomas Aquinas (Aristotelian Standpoint)

• The soul is the form of the body.
• The soul does not pre-exist the body; it is created by God at the same time it informs the body.
• There is no transmigration.
• The soul is immortal.

Descartes (Plato's Standpoint)

Descartes aligns with Plato's standpoint of efficient causality because:

• He rejects the concept of substantial forms.
• He considers the soul to be a thinking and self-sufficient substance.
• The body is an extended, mechanical substance.

The 18th Century: Julien Offroy de La Mettrie

• If the complexity of a plant, animal, or human body can be totally explained through mechanical terms, the whole world can be explained through those terms.
• There is no thinking self; there is only the extended thing.
• This