Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Primary education

Christian Thomasius: Distinguishing Spheres

In modern times, the distinction between law and morality began to be elaborated by Christian Thomasius (1655-1728). He distinguished three spheres of conduct:

• Moral
• Legal
• Social conventions (customs)

He argued the latter are mere rules of conduct and courtesy without direct reflections in the other two spheres.

Defining Morality

The word 'moral' comes from the Latin mores: a set of practices, customs, standards of conduct within a particular social segment. Every nation, in every era, has its own morality – rules of conduct that meet certain functions and have specific goals. Therefore, what was once considered moral may not be so today (like human sacrifice), and what is considered moral by one people...

Corporate Governance: The Board of Directors

Purpose and Functions of the Board of Directors

The Board of Directors is a group of people who jointly oversee the activities of a company. Their primary functions include:

• Representing the interests of the shareholders and the company stakeholders.
• Determining dividend policy and distribution to shareholders.
• Approving annual budgets.
• Supporting the CEO (or hiring/replacing top executives).
• Hiring and firing top executives.
• Deciding on executive compensation.

Who Appoints the Board of Directors?

The shareholders of a public company choose the members of the Board of Directors. This selection process may vary depending on the type of business structure.

Executives Reporting to the Board

The CEO and the President...

The Rise of Advanced Robotic Arms

This article discusses robotic arms developed by companies such as Amazon and FedEx, capable of picking and sorting objects with human-like dexterity.

For years, engineers have strived to replicate the human capacity to grip and manipulate objects using robots. However, recent advancements in artificial intelligence, camera technology, and engineering now enable robots to "see" and dynamically adjust their grip on objects of varying sizes and shapes.

Critics express concern that this technology will lead to significant job losses. Others, however, raise different concerns, including the potential for higher worker injury rates or the need for stricter human surveillance to ensure production targets are met.

According...

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Key Concepts in Business Ethics

1. Terminal values: Preferences about desired end states.
2. Instrumental values: Preferences regarding the means to desired ends.
3. Procedural justice: Concerned that policies and rules are fairly applied.
4. Distributive justice: Concerned that people are treated the same regardless of personal characteristics.
5. Interactional justice: The degree to which others are treated with dignity and respect.
6. Cultural relativism: Suggests there is no one right way to behave; ethical behaviour is determined by its cultural context.
7. Ethical dilemma: A situation that, although offering potential benefit or gain, may be considered unethical.
8. Ethics training: Seeks to help people understand the ethical aspects of decision-

Malapropism-humorous misuse of A word that sounds similar to the word intended but has a ludicrously different Meaning

Mania-crazed, excessive excitement; Insanity; delusion

Marginal-related to or located at the Margin or border; at the lower limit of quality; insignificant

Materialistic-preoccupied with Material things; greedy for possessions

Mawkish-overly sentimental; maudlin

Meander-to travel along a winding or Indirect route; to ramble or stray from the topic

Medium-the means by which something Is conveyed or accomplished; a substance through which something is transferred Or conveyed; the materials used by an artist

Melancholy-gloomy; depressed and weary

Melee-a brawl; a confused fight or Struggle; a violent free-for-all; tumultuous confusion

Menagerie-

Common English Antonyms and Opposites

Many of these opposites are formed using negative prefixes such as un-, in-, il-, im-, or dis-.

• Adequate (adecuado) / Inadequate (inadecuado)
• Appropriate (apropiado) / Inappropriate (inapropiado)
• Bearable (tolerable) / Unbearable (intolerable)
• Believable (creíble) / Unbelievable (increíble)
• Censored (censurado) / Uncensored (sin censura)
• Comfortable (cómodo) / Uncomfortable (incómodo)
• Decent (decente, digno) / Indecent (indecente, indigno)
• Helpful (útil, servicial) / Unhelpful (inútil, de poca ayuda)
• Credible (creíble) / Incredible (increíble)
• Legal (legal) / Illegal (ilegal)
• Legible (legible) / Illegible (ilegible)
• Literate (alfabetizado) / Illiterate (analfabeto)
• Logical (lógico) / Illogical (ilógico)
• Loved

Beowulf: Key Events and Literary Elements

Early Danish History

Hrothgar Builds Heorot

Grendel Attacks

Beowulf Hears the News

The Coast Guard Greets Beowulf

Wulfgar Greets Beowulf

Hrothgar Greets Beowulf

Unferth Challenges Beowulf; Beowulf Replies

Wealhtheow Greets Beowulf

Beowulf and Grendel Fight

Celebrations at Heorot; Beowulf Rewarded

The story of Sigemund and the Finn episode is told.

More Celebrations

Grendel's Mother Attacks

Beowulf Comes to Hrothgar's Aid

Beowulf Fights Grendel's Mother

Beowulf sinks into the mere, fights Grendel's mother, and cuts off Grendel's head.

Celebrations and Thanks

Hrothgar's Prophecy and Warning

Gifts and parting.

Home to Hygelac and Queen Hygd

Contrast between Queen Modthryth and Queen Hygd revealed.

Beowulf Recounts His Adventures

(...

Cartesian Notions: Doubt and Certainty

With doubt begins the implementation of the method. As the first rule states: "Never accept anything as true without having met with evidence that it is so, avoiding precipitation and prejudice, and including nothing more in my judgments than what presents itself so clearly and distinctly that I have no reason to doubt it."

Defining Cartesian Methodical Doubt

Cartesian doubt is a methodical doubt. It involves provisionally considering as false those opinions, beliefs, and knowledge previously taken as true, questioning them, and treating them as false. Methodical doubt is a way or path to reach indubitable truth, unlike skepticism, which remains perpetually in doubt.

The Reasons for Doubt

The processes (reasons...

Understanding Ethics

Ethics deals with fundamental questions about what constitutes "good" and "bad," as well as concepts of duty, obligation, and moral responsibility.

Key Divisions of Philosophy

• Problems of Knowledge: This division includes Logic and Epistemology (the study of knowledge itself).
• Problems of the Self: Encompasses Cosmology (the study of the universe), Anthropology (the study of humanity), and Metaphysics (the study of fundamental reality).
• Problems of Value: Involves Ethics and Axiology (the study of values).

Ethics and Related Fields of Study

Ethics is interconnected with various disciplines, including:

• Anthropology
• Psychology
• Sociology
• Economics
• Politics
• Law

The Moral Dimension

The moral dimension refers to the set of codes that govern...