Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Other courses

Scientific Method

Method etymologically means "way". Procedure is a fixed and stable set of several steps or rules that allow reaching an end.

Deductive Method

It involves extracting a particular or concrete conclusion from general principles or data. The consistency of this method is unquestionable; if the baseline data are true, the conclusion will also be true. However, this method has a limitation: strictly speaking, it is only feasible in normal science.

Inductive Method

It consists of drawing a general conclusion from specific data or individuals. After observing what happens in most cases, we affirm that the same will happen for all cases of the same type. It is a form of generalization (a step from the concrete to the general).

Its most notable...

**Enable and Rehabilitate**

Enable: To make a person fit for something they were not previously capable of. It is the process by which a subject acquires a new function.

Rehabilitate: The process by which a subject retrieves a lost function.

**Special Education**

Special education serves students who do not benefit from regular education systems and require specialized methodologies to achieve learning. It requires a multidisciplinary curriculum, special and differential methods (motor, sensory, intellectual, social, or multi-deficit), and a multidisciplinary support team.

**Education**

Education plays a critical role in the community. It is inherent in the continued existence and lifestyle, performed by a sum of cultural processes of assimilation...

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Understanding Argumentative Text

An argumentative text presents a subjective vision of an issue or topic. Its primary purpose is to influence the recipient, with the conative function predominating through persuasive appeals.

Elements and Structure

Argumentative texts follow a logical and orderly structure:

• Thesis: The principal idea around which the text is organized.
  • Inductive: The author develops arguments to reach the thesis.
  • Deductive: The most common approach; the author starts with the thesis and defends it with arguments.
• Argumentative Body: Comprised of the arguments provided by the author to defend the thesis.
• Conclusion: Summarizes the ideas derived from the arguments. In inductive structures, the conclusion aligns with the thesis.

Types

The Transcendental Aesthetic

The transcendental aesthetic is sensitive transcendental criticism. Kant calls this part of his work aesthetic (from the Greek sense), which concludes that space and time are a priori conditions of objectivity. Space is a pure a priori intuition; intuitive knowledge is not a concept because the concept applies to any number of things, and intuition is a direct uptake of individuality.

Nothing can be knowledge unless certain conditions are met by the knower. The subject acts on something, and it becomes like an object of knowledge. What the subject does to something that becomes an object of knowledge are the transcendental conditions of objectivity, which Kant called a priori forms.

Time as A Priori Sensibility

Kant...

Fire Insurance: Understanding Risks and Coverage

In insurance policies against fire, the risks and losses insured against typically cover all losses or damages caused by fire. However, similar to marine insurance cases, coverage may be limited based on the items insured or the cause of the accident. Many policies specifically exclude fires caused by a mob or enemies of the commonwealth. Furthermore, the policy's own provisions limit its duration.

Essential Risk Management Strategies

Risk Avoidance

While it is often impossible to completely avoid risk, the possibility should not be overlooked. For example:

• During a severe blizzard, a Car Fleet may choose not to release vehicles for travel until the weather clears, thereby avoiding the risk of auto

Liberalism: Foundations and Principles

The tradition known as liberal politics was born in England in the eighteenth century, opposing tyranny and fundamentally defending individual freedom.

John Locke and Inalienable Rights

John Locke established that the individual has three basic inalienable rights: the right to life, the right to liberty, and property rights. These rights are considered prior to society. From this approach, the following consequences follow:

• Limited State Function: The state's sole function is to protect citizens' rights. The state is not entitled to intervene in any other way in public life.
• Control of Power: It is necessary to control the actions of the government to prevent it from using its power to assume functions not

Core Terminology

Authority

The person who sends or exercises power over other members of society, and to whom all owe obedience. Locke refers to the figure of the independent judge, as only he can be appealed to when one has been injured or wronged regarding their rights, or when a conflict arises between two parties requiring mediation by a third person.

Absolute Prince

Term used by Locke to name the monarch of an absolutist state. An absolute monarchy is a regime where the king has absolute power over his subjects. The "absolute monarch" is not subject to the law or any other power, as they possess all the freedom of the state of nature, enhanced by the power and freedom guaranteed by the system.

Civil Government

The executive branch of the "civil...

Formal Classical Logic: Bivalent and Truth-Functional

Logic is a science that studies the laws and principles that determine the validity of an argument. It is a philosophical field of knowledge whose foundations were first forged in antiquity. In the 4th Century BC, a thinker named Aristotle from the region of Stagira composed a treatise devoted to logic; it is the first book we have record of devoted entirely to logic.

Now, this science has developed as independent knowledge, especially since the late nineteenth century. Some crucial contributions that made possible the development of formal logic as a science are due to: Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, Jan Łukasiewicz, Rudolf Carnap, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Willard

Values and Moral Norms

Values and Moral Norms: Freedom makes man a moral being by nature. If man is not free, if his conduct was predetermined, it is absurd to speak of moral rules. Rules are present in every individual. In principle, the child is subject to the rules imposed by society. But slowly, consciousness tends to develop its own rules.

Morality Defined

Morality: It is characterized by:

• It is attributed mainly to the relationship between a human act and a moral standard. If the act is consistent with the rule, it is right, and if otherwise, it is unjust.
• Can only be attributed to persons. Never said of an animal or a plant.
• Affects the whole person and not only in part.
• Is imposed as a necessary requirement for all people.

Sources of Values

Objectivism

Sources