Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Philosophy and ethics for Baccalaureate

External Structure

The House of Bernarda Alba features a classic three-act structure, corresponding to the traditional pattern of introduction, middle, and end. Each act unfolds in a distinct setting and at a different time.

Internal Structure and Cyclical Patterns

The defining feature of Lorca's drama is its cyclical and representative structure. Each event follows a similar internal progression: initial calm, a violent succession of conflicts, and a final escalation of conflict and violence. These conflicts intensify in a crescendo towards the final suicide: erotic passion, jealousy, and hatred increase and express more violence as the work proceeds. The play incorporates other recurring elements:

• Each act begins with the adverb "now".
• Bernarda'

Myth vs. Logos: The Dawn of Reason

Myth: A fantastical story, rich in symbols and metaphors, passed down through generations. Myths explain the world's origin and address questions about the afterlife, featuring gods, heroes, and characters who act arbitrarily within a natural setting. They reveal esoteric truths that require interpretation.

Logos: Representing word, argument, and reason, logos signifies language grounded in reason and explanation. This marked the beginning of rational thought, with philosophy as its heir.

Early Theories of Existence

Fixism: This theory posits that species arose from a single act of creation at a specific time and remain unchanged. Aristotle adhered to this view.

Creationism: Creationists argue for divine intervention...

Philosophical Context of the Middle Ages

Medieval philosophy encompasses not only Scholasticism but also a significant preparation period known as the Patristic era (4th century), in which the most prominent figure is St. Augustine. The contribution of the Church during this period was a synthesis of Greek philosophy and the Christian religion, notably influenced by Plotinus and Plato. From the 6th to the 9th centuries, authors such as Boethius were responsible for recovering the classical tradition.

The Three Stages of Scholasticism

Scholasticism is divided into three distinct stages:

• A training period (9th to 12th century) dominated by Augustinian Neoplatonism.
• A major period (13th century) coinciding with the rise of Aristotelianism and the work

Justice, Law, and Economic Inequality

A free and democratic state relies on the regulation of relationships between people by law. Justice, in turn, is founded on compliance with these state-sanctioned laws. One fundamental principle in many democratic states is the right of individuals to own property and accumulate wealth, provided they adhere to legal frameworks. This right, however, often leads to the existence of groups with greater wealth than others, creating economic inequality among citizens, which can challenge the state's commitment to justice.

Individual vs. Social Justice Models

In contrast to this individualistic model of justice, some thinkers propose a model of social justice, arguing that social and economic inequalities are inherently...

Note: Plato's Theory of Reality

According to Plato, the question regarding the nature of reality remained unresolved. The answers provided by prior or contemporary philosophers were unsatisfactory. Plato's proposal stems from the Socratic approach, which consistently analyzed cases inductively to obtain universal concepts. Plato learned that these concepts possessed universal fixity and necessity, which were essential to overcome the rhetoric of the Sophists. He transformed these concepts into subsistent entities located in a supersensible, non-material realm.

The Nature of Eidos

These entities or realities, referred to in the Phaedo as eidos or Ideas, literally mean form, figure, or aspect. Plato also adopted the term from the Pythagoreans. For...

Augustine on Skepticism and Truth

Academic — in his Counter (or against the Academics) — Augustine criticizes scholars such as Carneades, Arcesilaus and the successors of Plato's Academy who held the position of philosophical skepticism. According to Augustine, that form of skepticism had stripped Platonism of its ascetic and religious character and upheld the claim that it is not really possible to know.

License, an Academic contemporary of Augustine, stated that to achieve happiness it is enough to seek the truth; there was no need to know it. Given this interpretation of Platonism, Augustine — responding to Academic skepticism — uses an argument similar to the one Plato employed against the Sophists: how can those who deny the possibility

Thomas Aquinas: Natural Law and the Common Good

Thomas Aquinas draws heavily from Aristotelian roots. He posits that every action tends toward an end, which is inherently good. The ultimate end toward which all human actions gravitate is happiness, which he identifies with beatific contemplation, aligning with his conception of the transcendent human being.

The Principles of Natural Law

• Practical Reason: Discovers the first principle: to do good and avoid evil.
• Natural Law: Founded on human nature itself, this law is derived from the eternal or divine law.
• Human Legislation: Positive human laws are considered unjust if they contradict natural law.

Natural law serves as a universal norm to which every human being is subject, containing duties derived...

Anaximander: The Concept of Apeiron

Anaximander was born around 610 BC and died in 545 BC. Theophrastus described Anaximander as a disciple and companion of Thales, being some fourteen years younger than him. Like Thales, he focused on practical issues related to science and is credited with drawing up a map of the Black Sea, probably for use by Milesian sailors. He sought the primary and basic element from which reality is generated, but unlike Thales, he held that this element, or arche, could not be formed by any of the known elements such as water, nor by any particular kind of matter.

If the first element was the material cause of all existence, it had to be the cause of any particular matter; therefore, this principle could not be identified...

Aristotelian Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness

Aristotelian ethics pursues an ultimate end: the highest good. For Aristotle, the supreme goal is happiness (eudaimonia).

The Path to Human Flourishing

The path to the good for any being is to fully realize its inherent nature or function. Therefore, for human beings, this good—this happiness—is achieved by fully realizing their unique function or essence: being completely rational. However, because this rational character is central, achieving this end depends on our freedom and will.

Reason, Balance, and the Contemplative Life

This rational pursuit also encompasses various goods for a well-rounded life. While these goods are sought in pursuit of happiness, to truly lead us to it, they must be ordered...

Plato: Philosophical Influences

Plato's thought was shaped by several key influences:

• Socrates: His conception of philosophy as a collective search through dialogue, focus on ethical problems, belief in universal truths (Ideas), and the necessity of knowledge to achieve the Good.
• Pythagoreanism: The theory of the immortality and transmigration of souls.
• Heraclitus: The view of the sensible world as a changing reality.
• Parmenides: The identification of thinking and being, reason as the instrument of truth, distrust of the senses, and the concept of one eternal reality.

The Theory of Ideas

Ideas represent authentic reality, absolute and universal truths, and the essence of things. Plato maintains a dualistic vision of reality:

• Intelligible World: Ideas