Political Philosophy: Aquinas and Machiavelli Compared

Thomas Aquinas: Natural Law and the Common Good

Thomas Aquinas draws heavily from Aristotelian roots. He posits that every action tends toward an end, which is inherently good. The ultimate end toward which all human actions gravitate is happiness, which he identifies with beatific contemplation, aligning with his conception of the transcendent human being.

The Principles of Natural Law

• Practical Reason: Discovers the first principle: to do good and avoid evil.
• Natural Law: Founded on human nature itself, this law is derived from the eternal or divine law.
• Human Legislation: Positive human laws are considered unjust if they contradict natural law.

Natural law serves as a universal norm to which every human being is subject, containing duties derived from human nature. These principles are clear, immutable, and universal. Regarding society, Aquinas argues that the state is the natural state of human life; humans are born to live in community. Therefore, the state must seek the common good, legislating in accordance with natural law. Laws contrary to natural or divine law are not binding in conscience and should be rejected.

Niccolò Machiavelli: The Separation of Ethics and Politics

Machiavelli is known for separating the realms of morality and ethics from politics. While he acknowledges that princes are often advised to be adorned with virtues like honor, justice, or clemency, he argues that a prince's policy action should not rely solely on moral qualities.

Key Concepts in Machiavellian Thought

• The Prince: Must possess the force of the lion and the wisdom of the fox.
• Virtù: Represents the ability of the prince or state to remain strong, secure social consent, and maintain political action.
• Prudence: The ability to decide the means that adequately ensure success and adapt to changing circumstances.
• Fortune: Refers to events outside human control; virtù is the ability to cope with the adverse effects of fortune.

Machiavelli posits that moral considerations are secondary to politics. He views humans as essentially flawed, suggesting that a ruler should be wary of his subjects. The ultimate end of political action is the reason of state—the preservation, stability, and prosperity of the state as an autonomous body. His philosophy, often summarized by the idea that the end justifies the means, significantly influenced later thinkers such as Hobbes and Spinoza.