Medieval Philosophy and the Rise of Scholasticism

Philosophical Context of the Middle Ages

Medieval philosophy encompasses not only Scholasticism but also a significant preparation period known as the Patristic era (4th century), in which the most prominent figure is St. Augustine. The contribution of the Church during this period was a synthesis of Greek philosophy and the Christian religion, notably influenced by Plotinus and Plato. From the 6th to the 9th centuries, authors such as Boethius were responsible for recovering the classical tradition.

The Three Stages of Scholasticism

Scholasticism is divided into three distinct stages:

• A training period (9th to 12th century) dominated by Augustinian Neoplatonism.
• A major period (13th century) coinciding with the rise of Aristotelianism and the work of St. Thomas Aquinas.
• A final section (14th century).

The Reconciliation of Faith and Reason

In the 13th century, Augustinian Platonism was the predominant philosophy, and Aristotle was largely unknown. However, this was the era when Aristotle's work began to spread across the continent, deeply influencing Christianity and St. Thomas Aquinas. The central problem of religion at the time was finding rational support for faith—a challenge that persists today and one that Aquinas sought to address.

Initially, the dialecticians believed only in reason as a tool for knowledge, while theologians relied solely on religion. The first attempt to reconcile these two positions was made by St. Anselm of Canterbury during the 11th and 12th centuries.

The Aristotelian Revolution in Paris

Between 1200 and 1250, the University of Paris began introducing Neoplatonic Aristotelianism. However, Aristotle's works were initially prohibited due to the radicalization of sacred truths. Despite this ban, some teachers taught classes using Aristotelian texts, such as Albertus Magnus and Alexander of Hales, who applied Aristotelian metaphysics to questions regarding the scientific foundations of theology. St. Thomas Aquinas took full advantage of these developments to the maximum degree.

The Synthesis of St. Thomas Aquinas

In 1270, Averroism was censured for its strict fidelity to Aristotle's thought. Consequently, by equating Averroism with the ideas of St. Thomas, his teachings were also condemned as heretical. St. Thomas concluded that God was the cause of the world's creation from nothing and maintained it through His continuous involvement; he was determined to show that this could be rationally demonstrated.

What Thomas did was to adapt several theories from the Averroists, refining the Aristotelian elements because he believed that these would be compatible with faith. Some of these theories include:

• Metaphysics: The theory of movement.
• Theology: The definition of God as pure act.
• Epistemology: The theory of knowledge.

Furthermore, he was influenced by Augustinian Neoplatonism, from which he adopted the hierarchy of the universe and the theory of Grace, among others. It is also essential to acknowledge the Jewish and Arab influences, which contributed to the crucial distinction between essence and existence.