Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Vocational training

Cold War Dynamics

Defensive Military Alliances

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): Formed by the United States and other Western nations.
• Warsaw Pact: Founded and led by the Soviet Union.

Creation of Large Military Blocs

The formation of two major blocs led to an arms race. The threat of weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons, loomed over the world. A balance of conventional and nuclear weapons was maintained to prevent direct military confrontation between the superpowers.

Stages of the Cold War

High-Tension Period: 1947-1956

• Berlin Blockade: Berlin was divided into four occupation zones. The Soviets controlled the German sector. Western allies decided to combine their German occupation areas. Stalin opposed the air bridge used

Science and Technology Vocabulary

Astronomy and Space Exploration

Words

• Alien (adj/n): Extraterrestrial
• Antidepressant (n)
• Astronomer (n)
• Black Hole (n)
• Galaxy (n)
• Geologist (n)
• Gravity (n)
• Parallel Universe (n)
• Physicist (n)
• Telescope (n)

Phrases

• Remote: Lejano
• Set of Scales

Medicine and Health

Words

• Antibiotic (n)
• Cure (v)
• Disease (n): Enfermedad
• Doomed (a): Condenado
• Heal (v): Sanar
• Immune (adj)
• Implant (n/v)
• Organ Transplant (n)
• Painkiller (n): Analgesico
• Technician (n)
• Transplant (n/v)

Science Lab

Words

• Beaker (n): Vaso
• Calculator (n)
• Chemist (n)
• Experiment (n/v)
• Invent (v)
• Laboratory (n)
• Mathematician (n)
• Stuff (n): Cosa
• Test Tube (n)
• Thermometer (n)

Phrasal Verbs

• Carry out: Llevar a cabo
• Come up with: Presentar
• End up: Terminar
• Shut down: Apagar
• Take over: Tomar el control
• Turn out:

Islamist Movements and Islamic Fundamentalism

Because the term "fundamentalism" is Christian in origin, many scholars prefer to call Islamic fundamentalists "Islamists" and to speak of "Islamist movements."

Historical Attention and Perception

The subject of Islamic fundamentalism attracted a great deal of attention in the West after the Iranian Revolution of 1978–79 and especially after the September 11 attacks on the US in 2001 by al-Qaeda. These events contributed to the common misconception in the West that Islam and Islamic fundamentalism are connected; however, most Muslims are not ideologically committed to the idea of a state and society based on Islamic religious law.

Characteristics of Islamist Movements

The character of Islamist movements...

The Constitutional Monarchy Reform Process

In autumn 1789, the King and nobility accepted the new position, which pacified the country after the National Assembly began the process of reform to turn France into a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy.

In 1791, a constitution was promulgated that exemplified the ideals of political liberalism: national sovereignty, separation of powers, and legal equality of citizens. Although the right to veto was reserved for the crown, it also established indirect suffrage based on a census. This divided citizens into active citizens (those with a certain wealth who had the right to vote) and passive citizens (those who lacked fortune and political rights).

Following the approval of the Constitution, a Legislative

World War II: 1939–1941 Early Axis Campaigns

World War II began on 1 September 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. Hitler was convinced that France and Britain would follow a conciliatory attitude, but France and Britain declared war on Germany on September 3 after issuing an ultimatum. Thus began a new war in Europe, what is known as the blitzkrieg.

War Theaters and Blitzkrieg Tactics

The war took place in multiple theaters: Europe, the Mediterranean and Atlantic, the Asian front, the Pacific islands, and North Africa. After the declaration of war, German motorized units and squadrons of the German Luftwaffe annihilated much of the outdated Polish army and rapidly reached Warsaw.

Norway and Denmark, April 1940

In April 1940, the Germans invaded...

The Russian Revolution: February to October 1917

It began in February as an uprising against Tsarist absolutism, but culminated in the world's first socialist revolution. Russia moved from autocracy to socialism in only seven months, without giving time for the establishment of a liberal regime. The year 1917 started as a movement of few, but very active, militants. Their prestige rose in the months following; the bond between the popular classes and the party grew. A month after the overthrow of the Czar, the principal leader, Lenin, had returned to Russia from exile in Switzerland. Germany allowed his passage and that of other socialist leaders, knowing that the pacifist positions of the Bolsheviks could benefit them.

Lenin's Return and the

The Reign of Alfonso XIII and Political Reforms

In 1902, the monarch Alfonso XIII came of age and was proclaimed king. His reign began with several attempts at modernization through legislative changes:

• The Electoral Reform Bill aimed at opening the political system and stamping out electoral fraud.
• The Lock Law (Ley del Candado) limited the implementation of new religious orders.
• The Conscription Law made military service mandatory during times of war and abolished the exemption fee.
• The Provincial Associations Law granted greater administrative autonomy to local councils and municipalities (ayuntamientos).

Political Instability and Social Unrest

The era was marked by significant tension, notably the army's difficulty in controlling the Rif region...

The Six Democratic Republics (1868-1874) - In September 1868, Elizabeth II leaves the U.S. due to the outbreak of the Revolution of September, known as the Glorious Revolution. "It is an interim government, headed by General Serrano, a strong man alongside Prim. The government convened constituent elections, earning the support of the monarchists. The triumphs of the monarchists promote the creation of a constitution that recognizes rights and punishes illegal legislation while maintaining the triple division of power, but the monarchy retains executive power. In addition, the government made major economic decisions (entry of foreign capital, tariff policies) and instructs Prim to choose a new king. After great difficulty, Amadeus of Savoy...

The Fall of Napoleon and the Rise of Nationalism

The fall of Napoleon's armies marked a significant shift. The French forces acted like conquerors, prioritizing favored nations, territorial acquisition, and material interests above the ideals of France and the revolutionaries. The imposition of these interests in the territories they occupied unleashed strong national feelings against the French invasion.

Thus, paradoxically, ideals of freedom expanded because the French presence became the ideological framework with which patriots in many countries opposed the French. The protagonists of the Spanish uprising in 1808 against the invasion and the imposition of a foreign king was a key event that marked the Napoleonic era.

In the decline of the...