The Decline of Napoleon and the Age of European Restoration
The Fall of Napoleon and the Rise of Nationalism
The fall of Napoleon's armies marked a significant shift. The French forces acted like conquerors, prioritizing favored nations, territorial acquisition, and material interests above the ideals of France and the revolutionaries. The imposition of these interests in the territories they occupied unleashed strong national feelings against the French invasion.
Thus, paradoxically, ideals of freedom expanded because the French presence became the ideological framework with which patriots in many countries opposed the French. The protagonists of the Spanish uprising in 1808 against the invasion and the imposition of a foreign king was a key event that marked the Napoleonic era.
In the decline of the empire, Napoleon was defeated in 1814 after campaigns in Russia and Spain. Napoleon abdicated power, and despite an ephemeral return in 1815, he was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena Island, where he died in 1821. In France and across Europe, a return to the old regime seemed inevitable.
The Congress of Vienna and the European Restoration (1814-1815)
The European Restoration following Napoleon's defeat saw the victorious states meet between 1814 and 1815. Following the proposals of the Austrian Chancellor Metternich at the Congress of Vienna, its main aim was the restoration of monarchical absolutism.
After restoring monarchs to their thrones, the four major powers reshaped the European map for their own benefit, disregarding the national aspirations of peoples. France retained its 1792 borders, and the Napoleonic empire was divided among the victors.
The decisions of the conference were supplemented by the Holy Alliance, a mutual assistance treaty between European monarchs against any threat of liberal revolution. This treaty admitted the right of military intervention to maintain the absolutist order. The powers in Europe agreed to meet at periodic conferences.
Liberalism and Nationalism: Forces Opposing the Restoration
Despite the apparent return to the old regime, the ideas generated by the French Revolution influenced many European countries. Liberalism and nationalism, emerging after 1815, became the two main forces opposing the Restoration.
The Unification of Italy and Germany (19th Century)
The unification processes of Italy and Germany occurred in the second half of the 19th Century and presented a series of similarities:
- The unification was led by the most developed area of each country.
- Unifications were achieved within a few years after intense armed conflict.
- The bourgeoisie was the leading class, but to ensure its dominance, the new states had to compromise with the old privileged groups. This gave liberalism a conservative character in these countries, especially in Germany.