Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

Sociological Theory: Adam Smith and Karl Marx

Although not considered sociologists by profession, early thinkers like Adam Smith and Karl Marx sought to answer the fundamental question of what constitutes a society.

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Adam Smith was born in Edinburgh, one of the cities where the industrial movement began. At the age of four, he was reportedly kidnapped by gypsies but was later rescued by his uncle. He entered the University of Glasgow at 14 and, in 1740, won a scholarship to Oxford, where he spent the following years at Balliol College.

Academic Career and Influences

In 1748, he became an assistant professor of Rhetoric and Literature in Edinburgh. He met the Scottish philosopher David Hume, who became a lifelong friend until...

Definition of Decolonization

Decolonization refers to the historical process through which European empires granted independence to their territories during the 20th century.

Key Factors Driving Decolonization

• Post-World War II Weakness: European metropolises were significantly weakened, making it difficult to maintain control over distant colonies.
• Rise of Nationalism: Nationalist movements strengthened, and the war provided anti-guerrilla training and fostered the emergence of popular leaders.
• Superpower Influence: The United States and the Soviet Union, the two dominant superpowers, did not support the traditional colonial model.
• UN Mission: The United Nations played a crucial role by promoting the right of peoples to self-determination.

Chronology

Law on Religious Congregations

Legislation applied by the reformist government (1931-33) which limited the possessions and power of religious orders through the nationalization of ecclesiastical assets. It also limited the influence of religion in education.

Law on Officer Retirement

Military reform legislation framed during the biennium (1931-33), consisting of the option given to army officers to choose between a retirement with full salary or remaining in the army on condition of showing their commitment to the republican regime.

Agrarian Reform Law

Legislation passed in 1932 that established the expropriation of large estates in order to improve land use and the settlement of peasants. The purpose of the law was to achieve a greater redistribution...

Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922)

Historical Background

Benedict XV's pontificate was largely overshadowed by World War I, which he labeled “the suicide of civilized Europe,” along with its political, social, and humanitarian consequences. Having failed with diplomatic initiatives to end the war, Benedict XV focused on humanitarian efforts to lessen its impact, such as:

• Attending to prisoners of war
• Facilitating the exchange of wounded soldiers
• Organizing food deliveries to needy populations in Europe

One of his final concerns was the emerging persecution of the Catholic Church in Soviet Russia and the resulting famine after the revolution.

Main Encyclicals

During his seven-year pontificate, Benedict XV wrote twelve encyclicals. Key documents include:...

The Pilgrim Fathers and the Mayflower

The Pilgrim Fathers (Mayflower) were a religious English group formed by the end of the 16^th century. Being dissatisfied with the political-religious environment of their country, they decided to emigrate, first to Leiden and later to the New World, where they founded Plymouth. They were gathered by the Puritan Church and took refuge from religious persecution and political instability in Europe.

The Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence was signed during a meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the thirteen American colonies would no longer be under British rule. It established that the...

20th Century Global Conflicts and Ideologies

World War I: Origins and Aftermath

• Causes: Territorial conflicts, German economic growth, nationalist fervor, and an arms race (armamentism).
• Alliances:
  • Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Italy.
  • Triple Entente: France, the United Kingdom, and Russia.
• Trigger: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
• Nature of War: Characterized by brutal trench warfare, which served as both home and tomb for soldiers. The conflict escalated into a global power struggle.
• Post-War Consequences for Germany: Lost colonies and territories to Denmark and Poland.
• Peace Treaty: The Treaty of Versailles.

Defining Political and Economic Systems

• Capitalism:
  • Often presents social injustice.
  • Features defined political

CHAPTER 15

THE MAKING OF RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION

The successor of Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, was identified as the leader of the 'honest yeomen' (1865-1869). Also, his political skills attracted the public opinion around the states. His politics offered pardons to the white in the southern elite and accepting local affairs to be managed by the new states government. This government started developing new laws restricting blacks of their freedom. Afterwards, republicans called for the dissolution of the government of Johnson and the guarantee of the right to vote for black men. History shows us that most republicans were moderated rather than radicals, but they bill to the congress to extend the life of the Freedmen's Bureau. In the 14 Amendment,...

The 1869 Spanish Constitution: A Milestone of Liberalism

From Moderate Governments to Radical Change

From 1843 to 1868, progressive yet moderate governments shaped Spain's constitutional landscape, culminating in the 1845 constitution. However, the Revolution of 1868 ushered in the 1869 Constitution, a radical departure from its predecessor.

Expanded Suffrage and the Constituent Cortes

The revolutionaries established new rules for electing the Constituent Cortes, granting voting rights to men over twenty. This resulted in a census of nearly four million people, roughly a quarter of the total population. The drafting committee aimed to create a comprehensive constitution based on this expanded suffrage.

The Rise of Doctrinaire Liberalism

The influence...

Early Colonial Developments and Communication

In 1704, the first newspaper, the Boston News-Letter, was established. During this era, the stagecoach became a vital mode of transportation, facilitating the movement of people and the delivery of packages.

Structure of Government in the Colonies

Colonial governance featured a governor, who was either appointed by the community or selected by the King. Additionally, the colonies maintained a Colonial Assembly composed of white men, elected by their peers.

The Navigation Acts and Trade Tensions

Following the restoration of Charles II in 1660, the British government enacted the Navigation Acts in 1660 and 1663. These laws were designed to regulate imports and exports between Britain and North America...

The Parallel Trajectories of Communism and Colonialism

Both Communism in Eastern Europe and European colonial rule were the dominant powers in Europe at that time, providing growth to their nations at a rapid rate and keeping it constant for many years until their political power holders changed their views to suit their own needs.

The Rise and Decline of Soviet Communism

Communism was the prime power in the USSR. Joseph Stalin created a large foundation based on communism itself, which at first seemed to be successful. The reason for this was that it was focused truly on the people. Also, it is worth noticing that the Russian Revolution started with the workers and people wanting to overthrow the government. However, after Lenin’s power, the...