Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for University

The Yugoslav Wars

Since 1989, there has been a historic sprint. During the Cold War, it seemed that history was frozen. Any conflict event was East/West. Nobody really knew what was happening. From the 1990s, thawing conflicts and disputes accelerated:

Yugoslav Wars:

Source: Different ethnicities and support. South Slavic Union: Birth year 1921 of the country. Yugoslavia's constituent peoples had been outside of Europe. These towns have completely different traditions, history, and political projects. World War II showed these differences. All worked with Croatian and Serbian communists and anti-occupation forces. Yugoslavia was one of the few countries nobody (neither the Allies nor the other side) tried to take territory from. Marshal Tito had...

The Evolution of North American Architecture

The European civilizations that settled in America created their own cities using materials such as stone and wood.

Thomas Jefferson and American Classicism

American Classicism emerged through the work of Thomas Jefferson, the third U.S. President. He designed the Capitol and the University of Virginia, where he famously utilized the Ionic order. Other significant buildings of this era include the White House and the United States Capitol.

H.H. Richardson

Henry Hobson Richardson was considered a predecessor by Frank Lloyd Wright; he deeply understood the specific architectural needs of the American people.

The Chicago School and the Rise of Skyscrapers

Chicago served as a vital thoroughfare between the...

Napoleon Bonaparte and the Empire

Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804. He aimed to conquer neighboring countries, placing family members in power. He viewed his role as a modernizer in Europe, introducing laws that protected private property and established a uniform weights and measures system, including the decimal system. His rule ended with his defeat at Waterloo in 1815.

Causes of the French Revolution

The French monarchy and society faced multiple crises and structural problems that contributed to the outbreak of revolution. Key issues included:

• Financial crisis.
• Inefficient administration.
• Burden on the Third Estate.
• Rising bread costs.
• Social inequality.
• Louis XVI ascended in 1774; France was drained by war.
• Three estates:

Policies to Combat the Economic Crisis

The only thing that seemed clear was that the era of classical liberalism and confidence in the U.S. market had ended. Franklin D. Roosevelt won the 1933 elections with a New Deal program that included government measures to combat the widespread poverty caused by the disaster. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union experienced remarkable economic growth, a circumstance that contributed to the prestige of communism. Fascism, with Hitler in power and armament factories, prepared for war by employing the jobless.

Keynes argued that the state should intervene to correct market imbalances and spur economic activity, for example, by investing in public works that would provide contracts to companies, which in turn would...

Modern Geopolitics and Failed States

T 14 ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) Failed States: These are states that have failed to settle and live in a climate of civil war and continuing insecurity. Clash of Civilizations: In the twenty-first century, world conflicts are not developed between nation-states, as in the preceding two centuries, but between large areas that share a similar cultural tradition. Ethnic Cleansing: Inhabitants considered uncomfortable due to their religion or language were expelled from regions under dispute in order to achieve greater homogeneity of the population, rather than building multiethnic states to guarantee the rights of all citizens.

The Velvet Revolution and Regional Transitions

The transition...

Military Strategy and Leadership

The first and most important aspect of leading a country is warfare and strategy. Napoleon was an excellent general and strategist who truly cared for his men; he understood their morale and viewed them as humans and warriors, rather than as disposable groups of people. He selected the right generals and ensured they utilized innovative tactics to outmaneuver the enemy. By building the Grande Armée, he transformed a war-torn France, fresh out of the revolution, into a powerful empire.

The Impact of Reformation

Secondly, reformation is essential. If a leader does not implement change after gaining power, their position becomes pointless, especially following a revolution. Napoleon understood the needs of the people...

South Africa

• Three Writers from South Africa: Nelson Mandela, Nadine Gordimer, John Maxwell Coetzee
• Number of Official Languages in South Africa: 11
• Johnny Clegg: South African musician
• South African Independence: 1961
• Helen Sebidi: South African artist
• Leader in Diamond Production: South Africa

New Zealand

• Two New Zealand Cities: Wellington, Auckland
• New Zealand Population: 4.8 million
• Jane Campion: New Zealand screenwriter, producer, director
• Janet Frame: New Zealand author of short stories
• New Zealand Flag Description: Blue with the Union Jack in the top left, four red stars on the right
• "All Blacks": New Zealand national rugby team

Australia

• Patrick White: Australian poet
• Geoffrey Rush: Australian actor
• Largest City in Australia: Sydney
• Number of Indigenous

Transcendentalism: Philosophy and Literature

As much a religion as a philosophy, Transcendentalism provided a system of beliefs that adequately reflected the prevailing thoughts and opinions of Americans. The Transcendentalist movement created a romantic philosophy that would become a rallying point for America’s greatest thinkers, artists, and poets, who were already intent upon finding a way to express the essential spirit of the American experience.

Historical Trends of the Early 19th Century

The framers of the U.S. Constitution in 1787 had crafted a new experiment on the world’s political stage. The political faith that ‘all men are created equal’, as expressed in the Declaration of Independence, was only an ideal. Thomas Jefferson...

Pillars of Islam

• Shahada: "There is no god but God. Muhammad is God's messenger."
• Salah: Pray five times a day facing Mecca. Ritual purity is required.
• Zakat: An obligatory annual tax, considered charity.
• Sawn: The fast observed during Ramadan.
• Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca that every Muslim must undertake at least once.

Sacred Texts and Traditions

The Quran

The Quran is understood to be the literal word of God, revealed to Muhammad. It details how to achieve salvation, requiring belief in Allah and the Quran itself. It contains 114 chapters, called Suras.

Hadith and Sunna

• The Hadith are anecdotes concerning Muhammad's life and behavior, which are highly relevant to the Muslim community.
• The Sunna is the example set by Muhammad's life, serving as a model