Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The Consulate (1799-1804)

Napoleon staged a coup on 18 Brumaire, ending the Directory. He was initially supported mainly by the moderate bourgeoisie, but soon gained the support of all the French people, aiming to end revolts and achieve economic stability.

The Napoleonic Empire

By 1802, Napoleon consolidated power, becoming First Consul of France. During this time, France was fighting against the Coalitions, but now, with Napoleon leading his armies, it was unstoppable. This consolidation of power and popular support led him to crown himself emperor in 1804.

The Restoration Era

The victorious powers met in Vienna to restore Europe to its pre-French Revolution state (1814). Principles of the Congress of Vienna:

• End liberalism and national sovereignty:

Definition of Colonialism

Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, considered the mother country, and the maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony.

Primary Causes of Colonial Expansion

The expansion was driven by several key factors:

• Industrial Development: New raw materials were required that were sometimes found in territories very far from Europe. The development of European industrial production demanded that new consumer markets be established.
• Population Growth: Intense population growth in Europe led to more overseas emigration. Between 1871 and 1911, approximately 33 million Europeans left the continent.
• International Competition: Competition developed between

Persecution of the Jews

Jewish quarters were attacked, accompanied by sacking and killings. This violence against Jews is called a pogrom and was predominant in Central and Eastern Europe.

Persecution of Conversos

These were Jews who had converted to Christianity. They were accused of being false converts who continued to practice their old religion in secret.

Social Revolts

Peasant Revolts

Impoverished peasants rebelled against the abuses of feudal lords, including:

• Increasing taxes to cope with the agricultural crisis.
• Prohibiting peasants from leaving the fiefdom.

Urban Revolts

Impoverished urban groups rose up against city leaders who monopolized political power and held most of the wealth.

The Crisis of the 14th Century

Agricultural Crisis

Bad harvests...

The February Revolution and Dual Power (1917)

On February 23, 1917, a large demonstration occurred in Petrograd, quickly followed by a general strike and riots in the barracks. Facing widespread unrest, the Tsar abdicated, and a republic was proclaimed.

This new republic was headed by a Provisional Government, which promised to call constituent elections to establish Russia as a parliamentary democracy. The new government initiated political and social reforms, but crucially, they decided to remain committed to their allies in World War I.

The Provisional Government's Challenges

The commitment to the war made it difficult to improve the living conditions of the population and implement the anticipated land reform. Popular discontent grew, and the...

The Second World War, WWII, and WW2 redirect here. For other uses, see The Second World War and WWII.

World War II: A Global Conflict (1939–1945)

World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The vast majority of the world's countries—including all the great powers—eventually formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis.

Total War and the Deadliest Conflict in History

A state of total war emerged, directly involving more than 100 million people from more than 30 countries. The major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. World War II was the...

The Provisional Government (1868-1870)

After the deposition of Isabella II, the Progressive Party and the Liberal Union formed a Provisional Government (1868-1870).

Key Decisions

• Call elections to Constituent Cortes: these Cortes wrote the Constitution of 1869, a democratic Constitution, with a wide declaration of rights, universal male suffrage and a Parliamentary Monarchy.
• The peseta was declared the official currency.
• Search for a new king: the progressive General Prim was in charge of looking for a new king for the country. After several candidates, Amadeus of Savoy was chosen. He arrived in Spain at the end of 1870.

This democratic period allowed the arrival of propagandists of the International Workingmen’s Association, and the first anarchist...

Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born soldier and politician who became the dictator of Germany. The NSDAP, or Nazi Party, was a political organization founded in Germany after World War I and led by Hitler shortly after its inception.

Munich Putsch

The Munich Putsch was the first attempt by Hitler to seize power in Germany. It was a coup supported by Erich Ludendorff, a former German general from World War I, and the SA. The attempt failed, leading to Hitler's trial and imprisonment.

Mein Kampf

Mein Kampf is the book written by Adolf Hitler while in prison between 1924 and 1925. The beginning serves as his biography, while the latter sections outline his political program, including:

• The superiority of the Aryan race.
• The need for a larger

The French Revolution: Key Phases (1789–1815)

First Phase: Moderate Phase (1789–1791)

• Meeting of the Estate General.
• Fall of the Bastille.

Second Phase: Radical Phase (1792–1794)

• Execution of Louis XVI.
• Rise of Maximilien Robespierre.
• The Reign of Terror.
• The National Convention: This body, full of radicals, pursued a Republic, breaking away from the old ways (Monarchy) and separating from the Church.

Third Phase: Conservative Phase (1795–1799)

• Period of reaction against the violence of the revolution.
• Establishment of the Directory.
• The Directory structure included:
  • Legislative branch: Council of 500 and Council of Ancients.
  • Executive branch: A five-person Directory.

Fourth Phase: Napoleonic Phase (1799–1815)

• Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte: Transition

The Fall of Rome and Germanic Integration

Some held posts in the Roman administration and the army. Therefore, there were Germanic tribes that were quite Romanised, such as the Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Other Germanic tribes were very hostile, such as the Huns and the Vandals.

Despite the Germanic invasions, the Western Roman Empire managed to stay in place, although in a very weakened form, until the German chieftain Odoacer deposed the last emperor of Rome, Romulus Augustus, in 476 AD.

Social and Political Structure of Germanic Kingdoms

They were monarchies. At first, kings were elected, but over time the position became hereditary. Kings were weak and had little power, as they were in the hands of an increasingly powerful warrior aristocracy....

The Napoleonic Era

Napoleon Bonaparte had a military education. He drove British forces from the port of Toulon, captured northern Italy, and forced Austrian Hapsburgs to make peace. He also led an Egyptian expedition in 1798.

Napoleon's Rise to Power in 1799

He took control of the Directory by coup d'état and established a three-man Consulate with himself as First Consul. Later, he crowned himself Emperor.

Napoleon's Reforms

• Class System:
  • Nobles who fled France could return if they swore loyalty to the new French government.
  • Peasants kept lands they had bought.
  • A new nobility was established through a meritocracy.
• Economy:
  • Controlled prices.
  • Promoted industrial growth.
• Government:
  • Strengthened the national government.
  • An efficient bureaucracy governed