Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Chartism: A Working-Class Movement

Chartism was a working-class movement that emerged in 19th-century Britain, advocating for political reform and social justice. The working-class people, who were not among the wealthiest, aimed to create a fairer society for themselves and others like them. They were named Chartists after the People's Charter.

Origins of Chartism

Chartism emerged in London in 1836 and quickly expanded across the country, with its most active period between 1838 and 1848. The Chartists publicized their demands through meetings and pamphlets. Several factors contributed to its rise:

• Rapid urbanization in British society led to unsanitary living conditions and long working hours for the working class.
• Only a small portion of the

 1_ Why did war break out in Europe in 1914?
Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria-Hungarian Empire, was assassinated by a Bosnian student. This was the trigger for the start of the war. The main tensions were Morocco, the Balkan wars and the military alliances. To have a general context we have to understand the general scene in Europe. There was a rivalry between powers and in this era nationalism was stronger than ever.
a) Colonial Conflicts: The Moroccan crises:
- Berlin conference (1885): Rules were established for the colonization of the African continent by European Empires. The rise of powers reopened the conflict. - Spain + France vs Morocco + Germany (1905): which authorized a Franco-Spanish protectorate, forced the Germans to back down....

World War II: A Global Conflict (1939–1945)

World War II was a major military conflict that took place between 1939 and 1945. It broke out in Europe on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. In 1941, the USA and the USSR joined the conflict. The war involved almost all European countries, Japan, the US, China, and European colonies in North Africa, Asia, and Oceania. This conflict was characterized by total war, where countries employed all available human, military, economic, and scientific resources to defeat the enemy.

Causes of the Conflict

• National Discontent: Following World War I, Germany was unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles (losing territory to Poland and Czechoslovakia), and Italy felt slighted by not receiving desired

Cold War Conflicts

Korean War (1950-1953)

North Korea invaded South Korea. South Korea was supported by the USA, Great Britain, and France. North Korea was supported by China and the USSR. The fighting ended on July 27, 1953, when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed, resulting in a stalemate. It is the only conflict that persists nowadays.

Vietnam War (1955-1975)

The US feared Vietnam becoming communist, so they invaded. North Vietnam was supported by the USSR and China (communists). South Vietnam was supported by the USA and Australia (anti-communists). Vietnam became communist. This is the only war the USA lost.

Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)

The USSR blocked access to Berlin. West Berlin was capitalist (USA, France, UK), and East Berlin was...

Imperialism and Its Causes

From 1870, European colonial expansion turned to Africa, Asia, and the Pacific and entered a new phase known as Imperialism. Unlike the previous form of Colonialism, whose main objective was to dominate the economic resources of the colonies, Imperialism implied the military, political, and economic control of the European minority over the dominated territories.

Key Drivers of the New Colonial Momentum

The new colonial momentum was due to different causes:

• Political and strategic: The possession of colonies assured the power and the international prestige of countries or allowed trade routes and strategic territories to be controlled.
• Demographic: The colonies provided territories where excess population could be sent

Exam B

1. The Constitution of 1812

This is a juridical text written at the time. This text contains the articles of the Constitution of 1812, which was the first in the history of Spain. It recognized individual agents as equals before the law and established national sovereignty. Absolutism was replaced by a liberal political system, including the separation of powers.

2. Key Events of the 19th Century

• Greece claiming independence from the Ottoman Empire (1829)
• Convention of Vergara (1839)
• First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)
• Battle of Ayacucho (1824)
• Construction of the Madrid-Aranjuez railway (1851)

3. Political Groups and Disentailment

Afrancesados and Patriots

Afrancesados embraced the new morality and supported its reforms. This group of Spaniards...

Causes of World War I

The outbreak of the Great War was driven by militarism (the arms race) and the alliance system, consisting of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance. Nationalism fueled tensions, particularly between Germany and France, and Austria-Hungary and Serbia. Serbian expansionism, the rejection of the ultimatum, and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand were critical triggers. Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum with German support (the "blank cheque"), while Russia promoted Serbian Pan-Slavism, sought war against Germany, and mobilized its army. Germany faced tensions with France and the UK and eventually invaded Belgium. France sought revenge against Germany and was allied with Russia, while the UK defended Belgium...

Understanding the Process of Decolonization

Decolonization refers to the often long, tortuous, and violent process by which colonies achieve their national aspirations for political independence from the colonial metropolitan power. Decolonization can be understood as the final phase of colonialism.

The Historical Waves of Independence

The first wave of decolonization came in 1776 when British North American colonies declared independence. While Britain maintained its Caribbean and Canadian territories, the Napoleonic upheavals in Europe so weakened Spain and Portugal that regions from Mexico to Chile expelled their imperial masters. By 1825, the Spanish and Portuguese empires were dead.

Decolonization Between 1825 and World War II

In the subsequent...

Robespierre and the Reign of Terror

Believing that the revolution was in danger, the radical revolutionaries, or Jacobins, used this support to increase their powers. The Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, assumed all powers and established a dictatorship. The danger of foreign invasion and the internal threat from French opponents of the revolution led to the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a ten-month period of violent repression. A special tribunal, the Committee of Public Safety, was established by Georges Danton and Robespierre. They tried people who were suspected of opposing the Republic, even without proof, sentencing them to death by the guillotine, a famous symbol of the French Revolution. Around 50,000 people were executed. Robespierre...