Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The Spanish Restoration (1874-1931)

Restoration continued until 1931. This restoration was made possible by an agreement between the major political parties and the government. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo was its architect.

Pillars of the Restoration System

• The introduction of a hereditary constitutional monarchy.
• The establishment of courts composed of two chambers.
• The promulgation of the Constitution of 1876: suffrage shared sovereignty between the Cortes and the King, a collaboration between the legislative and executive powers, and a bill of rights and freedoms for citizens.
• Bipartisanship: Coexistence of two parties: the Conservative (moderate and heir to the Unionists) and the Liberal Progressives (heir).

Reign of Alfonso XII (1874-1885)

Challenges

The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

Following the death of Fernando VII, a seven-year civil war known as the First Carlist War erupted. The conflict pitted supporters of Carlos María Isidro, who sought to maintain the Old Regime, against supporters of his daughter, Isabella II, who advocated for the triumph of liberalism.

The Ideology of Carlism

Carlism, rooted in the "Persian Manifesto," garnered support from rural populations—particularly in the north—as well as segments of the Church and nobility who rejected liberal principles and land confiscations. Conversely, major cities, the military command, and the regular army supported the liberal cause. The liberal army relied on the quintas, a system of compulsory military service that was deeply...

Consequences of the Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War left a devastating legacy:

1. High number of deaths: Approximately 450,000 casualties across both sides.
2. Mass exile: Nearly half a million refugees fled the country.
3. Executions during the war: An estimated 48,000 people were executed.
4. Repression of leftist sympathizers: Widespread humiliation, fines, and imprisonment targeted those identified with the left.
5. Economic suppression: Economic sanctions and confiscation of properties were common.
6. Purge of the public sector: A thorough cleansing occurred, involving fines, confiscation of assets, and dismissals. Vacancies were filled by supporters of the Franco regime. This purge extended to other professional groups like journalists, lawyers, doctors,

1. National Issues during Yrigoyen's Presidency

A nationalization project: The government's attempt to nationalize oil resources, presented as an anti-imperialist measure against large corporations. This involved creating a state oil monopoly and restricting land use by private companies.

The global economic crisis: Even before the 1929 Wall Street crash, Argentina experienced a sharp decline in prices, leading to economic shocks and exacerbating existing problems.

2. Ideological Differences Among Coup Leaders

Nationalists (led by Uriburu): Aimed to abolish elections and political parties, establishing a corporatist system.

Liberal Conservatives (led by Justo): Intended to restore the constitution and eliminate what they perceived as Yrigoyen's...

The Marshall Plan and Its Consequences

As Winston Churchill announced, the division of Europe between the East, dominated by Soviet influence, and the West, sheltered by the United States, became increasingly evident. In 1947, the U.S. decided to follow the guidelines issued by the so-called Truman Doctrine, which began a series of international interventions aimed at halting the progress of communism. This was the beginning of the period of containment. One of the most significant mechanisms of this policy was the European Recovery Program, better known as the Marshall Plan.

Enacted in 1948 by the United States Secretary of State, George Marshall, the plan was aimed at reviving the economies of European countries adhering to the American liberal...

The Holy Alliance

Although closely related to the Congress of Vienna, the Holy Alliance should not be confused with it. The Holy Alliance was a personal creation of the mystical and religious Tsar Alexander I, providing for a union of Christian monarchs to safeguard absolutism and the Restoration in Europe (1814–1830).

The Congress System and Military Intervention

Emerging from the Congress of Vienna, the Tsar's vague approach merged with the ideas of Austrian Chancellor Metternich, establishing that military intervention was legal in any state where absolutism was endangered. Current research tends to reduce the perceived role of the Holy Alliance, stressing that it was a series of loosely defined treaties and standards rather than the strong,...

International Panorama

• Block division of the world (Capitalist West and Communist East)
• Second World War
• Decolonization, Asia and Africa independence (new countries arising poor and backward - called the Third World)

Causes of World War II

• International instability (desire for revenge from Germany)
• 1929 economic crisis
• Aggressive foreign policy of the totalitarian states
• United Nations not acting in time to stop totalitarian policies
• Occupation of Japan in Manchuria, Italy invaded Albania, and Germany, Austria, and in 1938 invaded Poland
• Declaration of war from France and the UK to Germany

Opposing Blocs

1. Germany, Italy, and Japan (dictatorial regimes, formed the central axis)
2. France, UK, and USA (parliamentary politics)

Features of World War II

• Large territorial

The Cold War: Origins and Early Tensions

Post-War Political Landscape

The political landscape that emerged after World War II was profoundly shaped by the growing divide between the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1946, Winston Churchill famously noted the division of Europe into two distinct blocs: the capitalist West and the communist East. These fundamental differences led to significant international tensions, giving rise to the Cold War, characterized by ideological conflict rather than direct military confrontation, though it fueled numerous proxy wars and conflicts in the Third World.

Ideological Divide: Capitalism vs. Communism

The core of the Cold War was an ideological clash between two antagonistic systems:

• Capitalism: Advocated

Last Stage of the Dictatorship: Damaso Berenguer and Admiral Aznar (1930 - 1931)

The 1929 economic crisis was also felt in Spain. The value of the peseta fell unexpectedly, and inflation soared (a marked increase in the price level with adverse effects on the economy). The economic miracle of the regime collapsed, and political and social forces mobilized.

In February 1929, there was an uprising in the army, and Primo de Rivera dissolved the Artillery, reflecting the army's dissatisfaction.

In January 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned to eventually have the support of the army, and King Alfonso XIII instructed Damaso Berenguer to form a government to close the last part of the scheme and return to the situation before 1923. This failed because:

• The

Fascist Italy: Post-WWI Crisis and Rise

After the First World War, Italy suffered a serious crisis. The country was heavily indebted from financing the war, which provoked an increase in prices and rising unemployment. Much of the population began to support extremist parties: the Communist Party and the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento, led by Benito Mussolini. Although this party obtained few seats in these elections, it decided to seize power by force.

Key Features of Fascism

• Based on an undemocratic and anti-communist ideology.
• Established a totalitarian state.
• State intervention in the economy.
• Promoted an aggressive nationalism.
• Cult of violence and militarism.

The Ideology of Nazism

After the failed Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler was imprisoned, where...