Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

Escalating Tensions Before World War I

Germany's Diplomatic Challenges and the Entente

The First Moroccan Crisis (1905)

The crisis was provoked by the visit of Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, who encouraged Moroccan independence, challenging France's influence in Morocco.

France had reaffirmed its influence due to agreements with Britain and Spain, formalized by the Entente Cordiale. Germany's provocation was seen as evidence of the Entente Cordiale's growing power. This event highlights the role of Nationalism in pre-war tensions.

The Lapse of the Reinsurance Treaty (1890)

Another factor contributing to escalating tensions was the accession of Wilhelm II to the German throne in 1888.

Wilhelm II refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty—an agreement...

Post-World War I Diplomacy: Conferences and Treaties (1921-1933)

Key International Agreements

Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922)

Following Japan's expansion in battleship construction, the USA became concerned about naval power in the Pacific. The Washington Naval Treaty stipulated that the Japanese Navy's size could not exceed three-fifths that of the U.S. Navy, aiming to limit naval arms and prevent an arms race.

The Genoa Conference (1922)

This conference proved to be a complete failure. Germany requested more time to pay its war reparations, but France, in urgent need of the funds, refused the request.

The Treaty of Rapallo (1922)

Signed by Germany and the USSR, this 10-year treaty established an alliance between the two nations. It allowed...

Political Ideologies

The following ideologies shaped modern political and economic systems:

• Liberalism

  • Private property accepted.
  • The bourgeoisie controls the economy and political power.
  • Economic freedom regulated by the market.
  • Class-based society.
  • Individualism based on guaranteed private property.

• Socialism

  • Parliamentary system with a powerful state.
  • Classless society.
  • Economy led by the state.

• Communism

  • Classless society.
  • Economy and means of production controlled by the state.
  • Transition based on revolution.
  • No private ownership.
  • Proletarians control political power.

• Anarchism

  • Disappearance of the state and political parties.
  • Rejection of all types of authority.
  • No private ownership.
  • No property.
  • Self-managed free associations without obligations.

Colonialism

The French Revolution: Causes and Consequences

Roots of Revolution: Key Causes

• Desire for greater societal representation
• Opposition to the absolutist regime
• Severe economic crisis and widespread food shortages
• Significant chasm between elites and the working class (proletarians)
• Political aspirations of the bourgeoisie
• Monarchy's inability to adapt to political and social demands
• Influence of Enlightenment thought and the American Revolution

Impact and Aftermath: Consequences of the Revolution

• The Napoleonic Wars, reshaping the European map
• Widespread dissemination of revolutionary ideas across Europe
• Establishment of new regimes founded on values such as liberty, fraternity, and equality
• Unfulfilled aspirations for the Third Estate, leading to further

Impact of Enlightenment and American Revolution

The **Declaration of Independence of the USA** and its **Constitution (1787)** championed the inalienable rights of citizens and the separation of powers. Enlightenment principles and the **American Revolution** provided the bourgeoisie with new ideas to confront absolutism and the stratified social system.

Social and Economic Crisis

The crisis had two main facets:

• Economic Crisis: Resulting from a series of poor harvests since **1760**. The rise in food prices generated a spirit of rebellion among the people.
• Financial Crisis: Caused by the monarchy's severe lack of money.

1789: Rebellion Erupts

The **Estates-General** met in **Versailles** in **May 1789**. This meeting was chaired by the King and comprised...

The Great Depression: Causes, Crash, and Recovery

Causes of the Great Depression

After World War I, the USA emerged as the world's leading economic power. However, underlying issues soon led to a severe economic downturn.

The Roaring Twenties

This period was characterized by significant economic prosperity in the USA, marked by:

• Consumerism: A burgeoning consumer society with widespread adoption of household appliances, automobiles, and new fashion trends.
• Urban Growth: Rapid expansion of cities, symbolized by the construction of skyscrapers.
• Modern Culture: The rise of cinema, the Jazz Age, Swing dance, Art Deco, and evolving fashion.

Stock Market Bubble

Fueled by rising consumption, workers began buying on credit. Businessmen borrowed heavily from...

The End of the Ancient Regime

Factors of Change

Economic growth and the aspirations of the Third Estate, especially the bourgeoisie, were key factors of change. The bourgeoisie criticized the privileges of the nobles and clergy. Most members of society wanted to end the dominance of the privileged classes and establish a monarchy that considered the interests of the Third Estate.

Social Divisions in the Ancient Regime

Society was divided into three estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate). The main feature of this stratified society was civic inequality.

The Atlantic Slave Trade

Slaves were taken from Africa to the Americas, where they were sold and forced to work in terrible...

National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)

• Finally, the king agreed to the Third Estate demands. A new Constituent Assembly was formed to write a constitution.
• News that troops were being sent to Versailles led to a riot in Paris on 14 July 1789, in which people attacked the fortress and prison of the Bastille in order to seize weapons and defend their representatives.
• In the days following the storming of the Bastille, rioting continued in other cities and in the countryside, where peasants attacked the homes of the nobility, burned their archives and refused to pay feudal duties.
• The first orders approved were to abolish feudalism and nationalise the Church’s property.
• Furthermore, they approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the

Habsburg Spain: 16th Century Monarchs

The kingdoms and territories of the Catholic Monarchs were inherited by their grandson, Charles I, who had been born and raised in the Netherlands. This marked the beginning of the Spanish branch of the House of Austria, which in the 16^th century was prominently represented by Charles I and his son, Philip II.

Charles I (1516-1556)

Charles I inherited numerous territories from his paternal and maternal grandparents across central and northern Europe, as well as in Italy. He further expanded these domains with conquests in America. In 1519, he was elected Holy Roman Emperor, thereby also ruling over what is today Germany. Born in Ghent (Flanders) in 1500, he was the son of Philip the Handsome, heir to the imperial...

Philip II's Conflicts

After France was defeated in the Battle of Saint-Quentin, Henry II signed the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559. Then, a civil war broke out in France between the Catholics and Protestants.

Conflicts

Against the Protestants in the Low Countries

In 1568, in the northern countries where Calvinism had spread, the population rose up against the king. Philip II sent the Duke of Alba, who carried out a harsh military campaign. He was replaced by Alexander, who maintained control in Flanders, although the northern territories proclaimed their independence from the Spanish crown in 1581. The war lasted until 1648.

Against the Ottoman Empire

Philip II organized the Holy League in order to end Ottoman control over the Mediterranean Sea....