Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Secondary education

The Age of Revolutions in Europe

The political revolutions that took place brought the final end to absolute monarchy in Europe. Most of these revolutionary movements were based on liberal and nationalist ideologies.

Revolutions of the 1820s

The following revolutions took place in the 1820s:

• In Portugal and Spain, liberal revolutions aimed to establish constitutional monarchies.
• Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire through a liberal and nationalist revolution.

Revolutions of 1830

In 1830, other revolutions broke out:

• In France, a liberal revolution established a constitutional monarchy.
• In Belgium, a nationalist revolution gained independence from the Netherlands, to which Belgium had been united by the Congress of Vienna.

Revolutions

18th Century Economic Policies

Physiocracy: This economic theory, championed by François Quesnay, posited that a nation's wealth originated from the land, encompassing agriculture and mining. Land provided sustenance and raw materials, which artisans transformed into manufactured goods. Merchants then sold these goods, generating wealth. Economic Liberalism: This doctrine, developed by Adam Smith in his seminal work, The Wealth of Nations, asserted that individual effort aimed at maximizing profit is the source of wealth. Smith argued that a nation's wealth, accumulated through individual endeavors, benefits society as a whole. He advocated for minimal state intervention, proposing that supply and demand naturally regulate production, and prices...

The Constitution of 1837

The Constitution of 1837 Following the death of Fernando VII in 1833, his young daughter Isabel, under the regency of his wife Maria Cristina, took over Spain. During this regency, the power of liberal groups, both progressive and moderate, fluctuated. The progressive government, formed in September 1836, immediately convened special courts to decide on the restoration of the Constitution of 1812 or the creation of a new one. After nearly a year of discussions, Parliament approved a new Constitution on June 8, 1837, which was signed by Elizabeth II on November 17. This constitution consists of 13 titles, with a total of 77 articles, plus two additional ones. The new constitution embraced the principles of doctrinaire...

Cold War: Origins and Characteristics

The Cold War, a period of mutual distrust between the United States and the Soviet Union, emerged soon after their joint victory over Nazi Germany in World War II. Despite their temporary alliance, significant cultural and ideological differences fueled growing tensions. The United States' atomic monopoly and Soviet pressures on Eastern European governments, where communist regimes were established without popular consent, further exacerbated this distrust.

Ideological rivalry intensified through propaganda. The US was portrayed as the epitome of imperialism and exploitation, while the Soviet Union was depicted as a symbol of revolution, atheism, and tyranny. Anti-communism gained traction in Western political...

The League of Nations' Failure in Manchuria

The League of Nations demonstrated a significant weakness in its inability to prevent the Sino-Japanese conflict in Manchuria. A bombing attributed to a Chinese group on the South Manchurian Railway, under Tokyo's control as per the 1905 treaty, led to the complete occupation of Manchuria and the establishment of a puppet regime. Japan ignored complaints from both China and the League of Nations. The only penalty imposed was the non-recognition of the Japanese-backed state of Manchukuo. In response to the disarmament policies being promoted, Japan and Germany withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933.

The failure of the disarmament conference that year, attended by the United States, the USSR, Britain,

The Bourbons: A New Dynasty

War of Succession (1700-1713)

• In 1700, King Charles II died.
• Fights:
• France and Spain vs. Austria, Britain, United Provinces, Savoy, and Portugal.

Two candidates:

• Philip of Anjou (French crown and supported by the crown of Castile)
• Archduke Charles of Austria (German crown and supported by the Crown of Aragon)

Solution

The German Emperor died, and his eldest son, the Archduke, inherited the crown. As in the Peace of Utrecht and Rastatt, Philip of Anjou waived rights to the French crown and inherited the Spanish crown, becoming Philip V.

• Peace of Utrecht (1713)
• Peace of Rastatt (1714)
• Philip V waived his rights to the French throne.
• Spain lost:
  • The United Provinces
  • The Italian territories
  • Minorca and Gibraltar were ceded to Britain

The

Spain's Accession to NATO

Following a significant political regime change, Spain was able to join the European Economic Community (EEC). During the dictatorship, requests to join were declined. Spain's entry into NATO was considered crucial for the defense agreement. Almost all Western European countries were NATO members. Adolfo Suárez expressed his desire to join both organizations, but his term prioritized the consolidation of democracy and internal policy.

With Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo's arrival to power, Spain initiated the process to enter NATO, culminating on May 30, 1982. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), initially in favor of neutrality and a referendum on the matter, faced significant public opposition. However, the PSOE later...

The Rise of Monarchies

Strengthening of Royal Power

The power of the emperor and the pope was limited by the rise of monarchies, which enjoyed economic and social development from the thirteenth century.

The most powerful kingdom in Europe was France, governed by the Capetian dynasty. Conflicts arose between England and France. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Christian kingdoms grew and strengthened in their fight against Muslims. Christian kingdoms also formed in Northern and Eastern Europe, including Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Poland, and Hungary.

Factors Contributing to the Rise of Monarchies

• The bourgeoisie supported the monarchs to consolidate their power against the feudal lords. This support benefited both kings and the bourgeoisie, to the detriment

Charles V: The Dawn of an Empire

Charles V inherited a vast empire, becoming the most powerful king of his time.

1. 1516: He inherited his grandparents' possessions, becoming King Charles I of Spain.
2. He became Holy Roman Emperor, inheriting lands in Germany, the Netherlands, and France. He spent a significant amount to secure the Castilian vote for the imperial title.

Governance of a Vast Empire

1. Charles V's empire comprised diverse territories, each with its own laws and institutions.
2. His power was not absolute; key decisions, including new taxes, required approval from the parliaments of each kingdom.
3. The court was itinerant. Each territory had a governor or viceroy ruling in the king's absence, and an audiencia responsible for justice.

Challenges of

European Colonial Progress

The powers introduced developments in their territories. They built ports, bridges, and telephones, improving infrastructure. They established new farmland and industries for their own benefit. They also introduced hygienic measures and new hospitals. Consequently, mortality dropped, and the population increased.

Europeans set up schools, leading to a decline in illiteracy. The metropolis aimed for acculturation, imposing their way of life in the colonies. Missionaries aided natives and attempted to convert them to Christianity.

Economic interests were imposed in the colonies. Plantations became the property of colonists, who introduced large-scale production for the metropolis, along with a monetary economy and market....