Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

2/4 Europe Under Napoleon

Reforms Under Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul in 1799, and a new constitution granted him the powers of a dictator. In 1802, he became Consul for Life. Although Napoleon's rise to power marked the end of the French Revolution, several Napoleonic reforms consolidated the achievements of the revolutionary period:

• The Napoleonic Code: A legal framework that prohibited feudal privileges, established freedom of religion, and simplified the complex range of laws that existed before the Revolution.
• The Concordat of 1801: Maintained state control over the Church, ensuring that confiscated church lands were not returned.

The Napoleonic Empire

In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French. Within a few...

The Renaissance: A Shift from Theocracy to Humanism

Luckily, in 1453, with the Byzantine Empire's fall, the Dark Ages came to an end, and a beautiful new era arose. This was the moment humanity became human-centric, setting aside the dominance of the Church and religion. That moment, known as the Renaissance era, saw rapid development in:

• Physics
• Arts
• General Sciences
• Mathematics
• Many other disciplines

This post-Dark Ages era was one of the greatest periods of human development ever registered. However, humanity had still lost about a thousand years under the Dark Ages, primarily because the Church, through its Inquisition and rigid rules, stifled progress. Yet, the Dark Ages inadvertently helped humanity realize that we could not confine ourselves...

New Weapons of World War I

• Infantry Armament: In 1914, an infantry regiment maintained a 12:1 ratio of rifles to machine guns.
• Close-Quarters Combat: Bayonets were standard for hand-to-hand stabbing.
• Grenades: Hand-thrown explosives included the British Mills bomb and the German stick grenade.
• Mortars: These small artillery weapons were highly effective for lobbing bombs directly into enemy trenches.
• Artillery Evolution: Pre-1914 artillery fired two types of shells:
  • Timed-fused shells: Exploded in the air to spray shrapnel; effective against troops in the open but useless against trenches and barbed wire.
  • High-explosive shells: Designed to penetrate defenses, though they often failed to clear barbed wire.
• British Fuse 106: A sensitive percussion device

1. What were Jefferson’s beliefs about the role of government?

He believed in having a limited power but setbacks were in order. He was anti-federalists//jeffersonian republican. He believed in frugality (little spending) and simplicity which means he cut back on some things. He cut back on the army and on government employees. He also wanted to cut back on taxes and resulted in getting rid of the whole national debt. He believed that each states had to have their own rights like education, road maintenance and such. Expansionism

2.In the election of 1800s what were the Federalists afraid of?

Federalists were afraid of revolution and chaos. (Adams) because if Jefferson won the election everything was going to change.

3.In the election of 1800s

The Geography of Rome and Italy

Rome was born in the heart of the agricultural plain of Latium, by the Tiber River and on the hillsides of the seven hills comprising its strategic location.

Geographical Features

• The Mountains

  The Italian Peninsula occupies the center of the Mediterranean. We know it as "the Boot." It is crossed by the Apennines, a mountain range which runs centrally between its two coasts. To the north, Italy is blocked by the Alps. When the Romans went through them, the course of history and the Mediterranean changed.

• The Seas and Islands

  Three seas bathe Italy: the Adriatic, the Tyrrhenian, and the Ionian. Notable islands include Sicily, Sardinia, and smaller islands like Elba and Capri.

• The Rivers

  • a) In the north: the Po
  • b) The Arno,

Key Terms and Concepts of Russian History

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended World War I for Russia. Russia was treated very harshly, being forced to give up significant western lands, including 26% of its railways and population, and 74% of its iron and coal resources.

Fundamental Laws of 1906

Introduced by the Tsar in 1906, these laws backtracked on promises made in the October Manifesto, significantly limiting the powers of the Duma.

Kadets (Constitutional Democrats)

The Constitutional Democrats, founded at the beginning of the 20th century, advocated for a limited form of representative democracy in Russia.

Alexander Kerensky

A prominent member of the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) and the Provisional Government, Alexander...

The First World War: Defining the Great Conflict (1914–1918)

The war fought between July 28, 1914, and November 11, 1918, was known at the time as the Great War, the War to End War, and (in the United States) the European War. Only when the world went to war again in the 1930s and 1940s did the earlier conflict become known as the First World War (WWI).

Unprecedented Scale and New Technologies

WWI's casualty totals were unprecedented, soaring into the millions. The conflict is known for the extensive system of trenches from which men of both sides fought. Lethal new technologies were unleashed, and for the first time, a major war was fought not only on land and at sea but also below the sea and in the skies.

The Belligerents: Allies vs. Central

The Cold War: A Summary

The Cold War was a long period of tension between the democracies of the Western World and the communist countries of Eastern Europe. The West was led by the United States, and Eastern Europe was led by the Soviet Union. These two countries became known as superpowers. Although the two superpowers never officially declared war on each other, they fought indirectly in proxy wars, the arms race, and the space race.

Key Events and Turning Points

The Yalta Conference

At Yalta, the future of Poland was discussed. Stalin wanted control of Poland, but the U.S. and U.K. were strongly against it. Britain pointed out that they had entered the war in defense of Poland and could not accept anything but free elections in an independent...

Global Historical Forces: Industrialization, Conflict, and Empire

The Industrial Revolution: Transformation and Impact

The Industrial Revolution, sparked by the Scientific Revolution, was a turning point that forever changed how people lived. Inventions like the cotton mill, coupled with available labor, transportation, raw materials, and capital, fueled its rapid expansion. It spread around the world, fueled by imperialism, as new sources of raw materials flowed into various nations in Europe. Governments supported entrepreneurs to establish factories, producing goods from raw materials, yielding capital, and increasing exports.

However, this era also brought significant negative consequences:

• Economic Inequality: A large gap emerged between the

Middle English: A Linguistic Journey

The Battle of Hastings (1066)

The Battle of Hastings, on October 14th, 1066, marked a pivotal moment in English history. King Harold of England faced William, Duke of Normandy. In 1051, Edward the Confessor had named William heir to the English throne, but Harold seized it in January 1066. William landed at Pevensey with 7,000 troops. Harold, having defeated Vikings in the north, raced south to meet the Norman invasion. Harold's exhausted men faced the Normans, who had taken positions on Telham Hill. After initial resistance and a final evening attack, Harold fell, and the Saxons were defeated.

Consequences of the Norman Conquest

The consequences were profound: Harold II, crowned the day after Edward the...