Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

2nd Phase: (September 1936 - May 1937)

a) Military Operations

The Battle of Madrid, initiated by the Nationalists, aimed to surround the capital. While the Nationalists won the battle, their overall campaign was a failure. Subsequent Nationalist offensives in the South (Toledo) resulted in victory, while their efforts in the North (Guadalajara) failed. Notably, the Nationalists also succeeded in the Campaign of Malaga.

b) Republican Rearguard

The Republicans sought to consolidate their government, comprising the Popular Front and Anarchists. They appointed Francisco Largo Caballero as the new Prime Minister, replacing Giral, to lead this new government of concentration.

The USSR, under Stalin, agreed to aid the Republic. In exchange, Moscow received...

Czarist Russia: A Difficult Modernization

Government: An autocracy based on the absolute power of the Tsar. Nicholas II reigned from 1894 to 1917. Its power base included the landed gentry, administrative officials, the army, police, and the Church.

Political Opposition

• Democratic Constitutionalists
• Revolutionary Populist Socialists (predominantly peasant-based)
• Worker-based Parties:
  • Mensheviks
  • Bolsheviks
• Soviets (emerging workers' councils)

Socioeconomic Conditions

Population: 63 million inhabitants in 1857, 92 million in 1896, and 122 million in 1913.

Nations within the Russian Empire:

• Since the 18th century: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
• Since the late 17th century: Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, and Finland.
• From the late 19th century: Central Asian territories.

The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)

Led by General Ramón María Narváez, this period saw a series of significant measures and reforms:

1. The Constitution of 1845

   This constitution established joint sovereignty between the Cortes and the King. Voter turnout significantly decreased due to a higher income level requirement for suffrage. The National Militia was abolished, and freedom of expression and assembly was limited. The Cortes, comprising two chambers (Congress and Senate), could only be convened by the monarch. This period also initiated a comprehensive administrative reorganization.

2. State Territorial Organization

   The state's territorial organization placed provinces under the authority of a civilian governor. Mayors were appointed directly by

Authoritarian Trends in Interwar Europe

• 1920: Hungary
• 1926: Poland, Lithuania, Portugal
• 1930: Latvia, Estonia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria
• 1933–1934: Austria

Fascist Italy: The Postwar Crisis

The Crisis of the Postwar Period

• Widespread labor unrest (strikes affecting many factories between 1800 and 1920).
• The constitutional regime, based on a coalition of liberal parties, was strongly contested by the Socialist Party, the Communist Party of Italy, and other political groups.
• Exalted nationalism fueled political tensions.

Formation of the National Fascist Party

• 1919: Benito Mussolini formed the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squads), primarily composed of former combatants.
• 1921: The movement became the National Fascist Party.
• Symbols adopted

Item 11

The Colonial War and the Crisis of 1898

I. Introduction

In the late nineteenth century, Spain experienced a deep crisis, detonated by the colonial war for independence in Cuba and the conflict in the Philippines. This crisis was based on the inadequate colonial policies of the dynastic parties of the Restoration era and the growing U.S. interests in Cuba. Cuba, a major global exporter of sugar, was exploited by Spain through a colonial monopoly that benefited Spain and went against the interests of the islanders, fostering a strong sense of independence among Cuban planters.

II. The Crisis of '98

1. Cuba: The Pearl of the Antilles

In 1868, at the beginning of this period, a revolutionary movement emerged with autonomist aspirations. The popular...

Imperialism: Economic Expansion

Economic expansion from 1880 onwards by Western European powers, the United States, and Japan into territories beyond their national borders. This often resulted in territorial occupation, known as colonialism.

Utopian Socialism

Aimed at an ideal society based on community, equality, and non-violence. Key thinkers included Saint-Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, Cabet, Blanc, and Owen.

Chartism (1838-1848)

A working-men's movement in Great Britain, led by Lovett and Place. The People's Charter demanded:

• A 10-hour workday
• Higher wages
• Job security
• Universal suffrage

Chartists sought political representation and reforms to address issues like "rotten boroughs" (depopulated electoral districts).

Lockout

The closure of factories by...

Modernism and the Generation of '98

The first question to be addressed when studying Spanish literature of this period is the term we use to designate the authors of the late nineteenth century and the first decade of the twentieth. We usually talk of Modernism and the Group of '98. In the late nineteenth century, Spain experienced a general crisis: the political system (based on turnismo, with conservative and progressive rigged elections to alternate in power) did not work; social gaps increased (proletariat and peasants against the bourgeoisie), and the first violent social conflicts began to emerge. In the last years of the century, a group of intellectuals called for a series of concrete measures to solve the country's problems. This is...

The Arrival of the Bourbons in Spain

The War of Succession and Nueva Planta Decrees

The will of Charles II appointed the Duke of Anjou (Philip V) as his successor. However, the perceived arrogant attitude of Louis XIV of France triggered rejection from major European powers: England, Holland, and the Holy Roman Empire. They did not look kindly on the possibility of the Bourbons governing both France and Spain. In 1701, these powers signed a pact, the Grand Alliance of The Hague, initiating the War of Spanish Succession (1702-1714).

The war was primarily a conflict between the Austrian Habsburg claimant, Archduke Charles, and the Bourbon claimant, Philip V, and their respective allies. It evolved into a major international conflict involving most...

Aristotle: Life, Philosophy, and Influence

Aristotle was born in the fourth century BC in Stagira, a city in northwestern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was physician to the Macedonian royal family, with whom Aristotle could coexist and interact. He received, in addition to the general education given to all Greeks, specialized education in medicine. At age 17, orphaned of both parents, he entered Plato's Academy, where he met Plato and remained for several years, first as a student, then as a professor of rhetoric.

However, the Macedonian hegemony over Greece, and the Athenian hatred towards everything Macedonian, forced Aristotle, closely related to Macedonian power, to leave Athens to avoid possible reprisals. He began a pilgrimage in Greek...

Main Political Features of Isabel II's Reign (1833-1868)

Although the reign saw many changes of government and different constitutions, it nevertheless had some features that remained unchanged over 25 years:

• A political system based on a conservative-leaning liberal monarchy, embodied by the Moderate Constitution of 1845. This constitution remained in force throughout the period despite political shifts, except for a few months in 1856 when it was partially modified. The Constitution established a regime where political participation was restricted to an oligarchy of landowners (census suffrage), senior military officers, and senior officials. This restricted suffrage excluded the rest of the country. It was also an authoritarian regime, defending