Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Causes of the First World War

European Rivalries and Alliances

Rivalries, particularly between France and Germany, had simmered since 1870, following the Franco-Prussian War. Germany emerged as the leading power in Europe by 1879, forming the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. France, in response, allied with Russia in 1892, later joined by the UK, forming the Triple Entente. Economic differences between the UK and Germany also intensified in the early 20th century as Germany began to compete with the UK's maritime trade.

The Balkan Conflicts and Regional Tensions

The Balkan region was a flashpoint, marked by a clash of interests between Austria-Hungary and Russia. In 1908, Austria-Hungary proclaimed the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina,...

The Decline and Fall of the Western Roman Empire

The Fall of the Western Roman Empire refers to the process of decline that ultimately led to its fragmentation in 476 AD. Towards the fourth century, Rome continued to dominate a vast empire, with the Mediterranean Sea as its axis. Roman civilization stretched from the Rhine and Danube rivers to the Sahara Desert, and from Hispania to the west of Mesopotamia. The triumph of Christianity, which Emperor Theodosius the Great converted into the official religion in the late fourth century, further strengthened this unity.

Crisis and Decline

However, this vast empire suffered a serious crisis that ultimately would end its existence. It was a giant, tired after several centuries of expansion and effort....

The French Revolution: Key Stages

The French Revolution was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates-General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of Western liberal democracy.

Privileged Revolt (1780s)

France faced a grave economic situation, with the populace unable to pay taxes.

National Assembly (1789-1791)

• Bastille Day: July 14, 1789
• Abolition of Feudalism: August 4, 1789
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: August 26, 1789
• Civil Constitution of the Clergy: 1790
• Constitution of 1791: Established a constitutional monarchy, division of powers, and census suffrage.

Problems arose with the Pope's condemnation

Taifa Kingdoms and North African Invasions

The military policy of Almansur carried a high cost; constant victories were necessary to secure income and maintain peace with the Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs. His authority guaranteed peace, but his son was unable to maintain order and died young, leading to flared tensions with the Christians in Al-Andalus. When the Caliphate of Córdoba disappeared, Taifa kingdoms formed and divided into independent states. This weakened Al-Andalus, and Christians began to conquer Taifa territories. The Almoravids were asked to intervene in Al-Andalus to stop the Christian advance. The reaction of the Almoravids to the Christians and subsequent internal divisions led to Muslims being divided into domains such as Valencia,...

The Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)

The reign of Isabel II can be divided into two main phases: her minority, with two regencies (her mother, Maria Cristina of Naples, who was soon confronted by the Carlist Wars, and General Espartero), and her majority, which went through three stages: the Moderate Decade, the Progressive Biennium, and the Liberal Union.

Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1840)

Maria Cristina faced two major problems: war and the institutional organization of the liberal regime.

a) The Carlist Wars

The country was divided between Carlists and Isabellinos (Elizabethans). Traditionalists were loyal to Don Carlos, while those who supported Isabel had to align themselves with the liberals. The Carlist monarchists were traditionalists,...

The Revolutionary Sexenio in Spain (1868–1874)

The **1868–1874** period in the history of Spain is defined by the revolution that led to the deposition of the monarch, the search for a new monarchy, and the establishment of a republic. This era is known as the **Revolutionary Sexenio**.

The Glorious Revolution (1868)

(The Septembrina or Glorious Revolution). The severe economic situation triggered a political crisis that explains the success of the uprising against the throne of Isabel II in 1868.

Key Characteristics of the Revolution

1. It originated from the **Pact of Ostend** (1866), which provided for the dethronement of Isabel II and the call for a Constituent Assembly.
2. The revolutionary uprising was based on urban and peasant revolt, organized

Characteristics of Fascism

Fascism was a regime defined by six main characteristics:

• Undemocratic and Anti-Communist Ideology: Its foundation was an undemocratic and anti-communist ideology.
• Totalitarian Leadership: The state was run by a totalitarian, all-powerful leader, often referred to as "the Duce." Individual liberties were abolished.
• State Intervention in Economy: The state intervened in the economy to achieve national self-sufficiency.
• Societal Domination and Repression: The state dominated society. Any opposition was severely repressed, and education and information media were tightly controlled to manage public opinion.
• Fierce Nationalism and Expansionism: It fostered fierce nationalism and expansion, which for Italy, required the creation

Architectural Design and Features

Structural Elements

The Parthenon features an isodomic wall construction and a trabeated system. It is crowned with a gabled roof and adheres to the Doric Order. The temple is octastyle (eight columns at the front and rear) and peripteral (seventeen columns along each side), with an amphiprostyle design.

Key components include the pronaos, the naos (or cella), and the opisthodomos. Both the pronaos and opisthodomos are hexastyle (six columns at their fronts). The Doric columns are notable for their subtle entasis, a slight convex curve in the shaft.

Optical Refinements

The Parthenon incorporates sophisticated optical corrections to counteract visual distortions and create an illusion of perfection. These include:...

Origins of the Spanish Restoration

The failure of the democratic system of the First Republic and its subsequent fall provoked a return to the Spanish throne of the Bourbons. In late 1874, there was a very negative image of all prior periods. All political groups rejected the excesses of the previous stages and advocated the need for a political system that was "serious" and practical. Disenchantment also reached Emilio Castelar, former President of the Republic in 1875.

All these factors influenced the success of the pronouncement by General Martínez Campos and the return of Alfonso XII. Landowners and the bourgeoisie rejected the democratic system. In general, the economic chaos of the previous stages motivated entrepreneurs to support the...

José Ortega y Gasset: Life and Thought

José Ortega y Gasset was born in Madrid into a wealthy family connected to journalism and the upper bourgeoisie. He spent summers in villages like Zumaia, where he enjoyed traditional activities such as bullfighting and pelota (ball games).

The Europeanization of Spain

Ortega was profoundly influenced by German philosophy and Germanic culture. This exposure led him to advocate for the reform and Europeanization of Spanish society and politics. He famously criticized Spain's intellectual stagnation, stating:

"There are no songs in Spain, nor Plato, nor Newton; nothing could even be done. People are ignorant, and ideas and theories only serve to frighten them."

Academic and Political Career

He served as a professor...