Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Soviet Five-Year Economic Plans

The five-year plans for the national economy of the USSR were a series of nationwide projects focused on the centralized economic development of the Soviet Union. These projects were developed by the State Planning Commission (Gosplan) based on the theory of productive forces, which was part of the Communist Party's general guidelines for economic development. Fulfilling the plan became a key goal for the Soviet bureaucracy. These initiatives involved planning the national economy in five-year increments. Several five-year plans were not fully completed within their allocated periods; some were successfully finished ahead of schedule, while others failed and were abandoned.

Interwar Europe and the Crash of 1929

In...

The Revolution of 1868

The Revolution of 1868 was triggered by a convergence of critical factors. The economic crisis of 1864 led to the collapse of railway companies, banks, and businesses, compounded by a stock market crash that depleted the Treasury. This financial instability was exacerbated by an agricultural crisis, resulting in widespread famine, hunger, and rising unemployment across the country.

Political Instability and the Fall of Isabel II

The economic turmoil fueled a political crisis, leaving Queen Isabel II without support beyond the moderate liberals. Other political factions—including unionists, democrats, republicans, and labor leaders—were excluded from the political process. These groups eventually joined the Liberal Union...

Enlightened Despotism and Carlos III of Spain

The Concept of Enlightened Despotism

Enlightened Despotism was the dominant political theory and practice in Europe during the eighteenth century. It stemmed from the notion of the absolute state (an all-powerful monarchy with sole royal power) and the king as a great benefactor of his people, who sought the welfare and happiness of his subjects through the imposition of a series of reforms "from above." These reforms were directed by reformist politicians inspired by Enlightenment thinkers of the time, particularly British and French, aiming to improve the economy, administration, and education to foster state prosperity. The motto "Everything for the people, but without the people" reflects that...

The Practice of Enlightened Despotism: Charles III

The reign of Charles III (1759-1788) was instrumental in developing reform policies in Spain. It marked the restoration of enlightened despotism, characterized by a rational and anti-traditionalist approach, yet unchanging and undemocratic. Enlightened Despotism faced serious limitations, primarily budgetary constraints (lack of resources).

The King's Ministers and Early Reforms

To carry out his policies, Charles III was surrounded by a team of secretaries, who were beginning to be called ministers. Some, like the Marquis of Esquilache and the Marquis of Grimaldi, were Italian. However, these Italian ministers also promoted the rise of Spanish politicians like Campomanes and Floridablanca.

During...

The Cuban War of Independence (1895-1898)

The Uprising of Baire, launched on February 24, 1895, marked the beginning of the Second and final War of Independence in Cuba. The initial uprisings took place in several towns, such as Bayate, Yara, Santiago, Trust, and El Gusano (The Worm).

The Uprising of Baire and Initial Campaigns

Generals Antonio Maceo and Máximo Gómez, along with the revolutionary leader José Martí, landed at two points in the east of the island to lead the rebellion. The Spanish command was initially entrusted to General Arsenio Martínez Campos, who tried unsuccessfully to isolate the rebel outbreaks. Given his failure, he resigned in January 1896 and was replaced by the harsh General Valeriano Weyler.

From the outset, the...

Spanish Colonial Conflicts

In the late nineteenth century, Spain retained colonial territories, including Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Philippines, and various Pacific Islands.

The Cuban Struggle for Independence

The first Cuban war concluded with the Zanjón Peace (1878), a mere truce. Creole aspirations persisted, alongside US interests in controlling the island's exports. Spain failed to meet agreed conditions such as equal political rights, parliamentary representation, participation in island governance, free trade, and the abolition of slavery.

Two main political parties emerged: the Autonomist Party, seeking greater autonomy, and the Constitutional Union, advocating for Spanish allegiance.

In 1893, due to administrative ineffectiveness, José Martí...

The Rise of Nazism in Germany

The elections of 1932 saw 196 Nazi deputies elected. Conservative forces preferred to reach an agreement with Hitler, who subsequently became Chancellor. Although he swore to uphold the constitution, his true intention was to transform the republic into an authoritarian state. He was supported by:

• The middle classes
• Ruined peasants
• Desperate workers
• Soldiers and former combatants
• The bourgeoisie
• Figures from industry and finance

Establishing a Totalitarian Regime

The Nazis transformed Germany into a totalitarian regime where Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled institutions, society, and individuals. In 1934, they decreed the dissolution of political parties and trade unions, and public administration liberties were abolished....

Ideological principles and methods of organization

Mussolini and Hitler made their doctrines in his work Mein Kampf and The Doctrine of Fascism:

The establishment of the omnipotent state, totalitarian and absolute.

It involved the denial of the principles of liberalism, based on respect for individual rights and the separation of legislative, executive and judicial.

Cult of personality of the head.

Leaders who were indisputable authority must obey blindly under a concept of infallibility.

Anti-egalitarian regime and undemocratic one-party.

Run society better and stronger: man superior to women, military and civilian than a member of the party to which it is not. In the German case, for the Nazis the goal of the ideal woman was caring for children...

Phases of the Civil War:

Phase 1: August 1936 - March 1937

The initial phase included the first battles and the fight for Madrid. The resistance of the capital frustrated the Nationalist plans for a quick victory.

Battle of Madrid

Nationalist troops intended to take Madrid, but the city resisted. The Republicans cut off communications to hinder the Nationalist advance.

Battle of Jarama

A major Nationalist action aimed to conquer Arganda del Rey. Republican units, under General José Miaja, defended Madrid, delaying Nationalist plans to surround the city and prolonging the war.

Battle of Guadalajara

The battle began with an Italian offensive on March 8 and ended on March 11. Republican forces counterattacked with the International Brigades until March...

Racism and Anti-Semitism

The new state replaced social cohesion and class structure with national unity and racial supremacy. To remove perceived impurities, a euthanasia program was deployed to eliminate the physically and mentally handicapped.

The Nazis persecuted Jews in three distinct phases:

• 1933–1935: Jews were deprived of their rights and property. The 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped them of German citizenship and forbade intermarriage.
• 1938: Violence escalated. On the night of November 9–10, 1938, the Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) occurred; SA and SS forces looted and destroyed Jewish shops and synagogues, while thousands of Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps.
• 1942 onwards: The Final Solution was implemented, aiming