Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Reign of Isabella II (1833-1868)

Early Years and Marriage

Isabella II began her reign at the age of 13 in 1833. Three years later, she married her cousin, Francisco de Asís, a husband imposed by government interests. The marriage was a failure, as the couple reportedly hated each other.

Dominance of the Moderates (1844-1854)

During Isabella II's reign, the Moderate Party held significant power. The Queen entrusted them with forming governments, excluding the Progressives. The Progressives, in turn, opted for either exclusion from government or violent uprisings, such as military revolts. The Moderates remained in power between 1844 and 1854, with Ramón María Narváez notably holding the premiership on several occasions.

This period, marked...

The Regency of Maria Cristina (1885-1902)

Upon the death of Alfonso XII, his wife, Maria Cristina of Hapsburg, assumed the regency with the support of the dynastic parties. They signed the Pact of Pardo, agreeing to maintain the monarchy, rotate political power, and uphold legislative measures. Maria Cristina entrusted power to the Liberals, led by Sagasta, who governed between 1885 and 1890, a period known as the Long Parliament.

The Liberals implemented a program of liberalization, developing advanced reforms and consolidating the political system. They approved the Commercial Code and Civil Code (1889), aligning with the tenets of economic and political liberalism. Legal protection was extended to the burgeoning agrarian capitalism and landlordism....

Spanish Disentailment

The Mendizábal Disentailment (1836)

Effective and widespread disentailment took place during the 19th century under the reign of Isabella II, during the regency of her mother, Maria Cristina de Borbón. Minister Juan Álvarez Mendizábal (a progressive liberal) promoted the disentailment. Its causes included:

• The Carlist War, which obliged the state to obtain resources at a time of empty coffers and diminished foreign credit.
• Radical anti-clericalism encouraged by progressive liberals, based on the clergy's support for the Carlist side. Raids on monasteries, fires, desecration, and killings were common between 1834 and 1836.
• Pressure from wealthy purchasers of goods during the previous three years, demanding the return of

8.3 The Decline of the Spanish Empire in Europe

The costly wars waged by Philip II and his father in the 16th century had depleted Castile's economy. As Philip III's reign began, a policy of pacification was adopted. Peace treaties were signed with two traditional enemies, England and France. In 1609, the Twelve Years' Truce (1609-1621) was signed with the Netherlands due to the war's stalemate and weariness on both sides. However, the Dutch continued to undermine the economic interests of the Spanish monarchy.

Under Philip IV and Olivares, the truce with the Netherlands was not renewed, and Spanish foreign policy was marked by involvement in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).

The Thirty Years' War began with religious and political clashes between...

Constitution of 1845

The Constitution of 1845 expressed conservatism and designed a very conservative, oligarchic model. It gave great power to the King, who controlled one chamber, the Senate, appointed directly by the monarch. It denied national sovereignty and established a state church, with the Catholic religion as the state religion.

Constitution of 1869

The Constitution of 1869 was the most democratic constitution of nineteenth-century Spanish liberalism, resulting from the September Revolution of 1868. It established a constitutional monarchy with full recognition of national sovereignty, concretized in a bicameral system (Congress and Senate) and an extensive bill of rights. It introduced universal male suffrage and freedom of religion....

The Fontainebleau Agreements and the Road to War

The Fontainebleau agreements permitted French troops access to Spain. This led to unrest, culminating in the uprising in Aranjuez. In light of this situation, Godoy and Charles IV were deposed. Ferdinand VII, initially favored by the people, abdicated in favor of his father to calm the situation, a decision he later regretted. To secure the crown, he sought Napoleon's support, leading to the infamous 'kidnapping' at Bayonne, where both father and son were coerced into relinquishing the Spanish crown to Napoleon. This event triggered the Spanish War of Independence.

The Power Vacuum and the Rise of the Cortes

With the monarchy in disarray, a power vacuum emerged in Spain. The Supreme Central Junta,...

18th Century Spain

The Dynastic Change and the War of Succession

• Philip of Anjou (Philip V) was appointed King of Spain. This decision provoked a major conflict:
• International Level: The presence of a Bourbon king consolidated Spain under French hegemony in Europe, which the remaining European powers consistently opposed.
• Domestic Level: A social and territorial division emerged around Philip V. The territories of the Crown of Aragon opposed the new king, while Castile supported him.
• The conflict ended with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714). The implications for international politics were significant: Spain lost its European possessions, and the United Kingdom became the leading maritime power, imposing a European political equilibrium

Christian Kingdoms: Regional Development

Upon the death of Sancho el Mayor of Pamplona, his son Fernando I received and took the title of King of Castile and León, defeating Bermuda III, the monarch of Tamara, and annexing their domains. After facing his brother García de Pamplona, he occupied territories in western Vizcaya and Álava.

From the 11th century, the progress of the northern kingdoms to the south intensified. The border of the Duero was overcome, and the troops of Fernando I conquered Coimbra. Pilgrimages through the Camino de Santiago introduced lifestyles and cultural manifestations from beyond the Pyrenees.

Division and Consolidation of Power

Fernando I's will divided his dominions between his sons: Alfonso VI received León, Sancho...

Political Model of the Spanish Restoration (1874)

The Restoration of 1874 marked a return to a monarchy and a conservative political system. Cánovas del Castillo, a key figure, aimed to establish a liberal political system. The Constitution of 1876 was a cornerstone of this era, featuring:

• Sovereignty

  Shared between the king and the nation.

• Censitary Suffrage

  Limited to approximately 5% of the population, primarily those with high incomes. In 1880, universal male suffrage was introduced, requiring voters to be at least 25 years old. An open list system allowed voters to choose individual candidates rather than parties.

• Separation of Powers

  Legislative Branch: A bicameral parliament consisting of the Congress (representing national sovereignty through

Symbolism of the New Byzantine Buildings

The division of the Roman world into two, the West and the East, meant the separation of two worlds. The emergence of artistic and Byzantine iconography differed. Byzantine buildings are structured around the central dome. The difference between the cemetery and the new Byzantine churches lies in the system employed, and their system of buttressing. In Byzantine buildings, the domes do not rely directly on the wall, but they do so through the scallops in huge piers.

Not only was there a variety of floor plans, but also a variety of interior decoration, predominantly gold ornamentation. The increase in gold was due not only to the identification of the divinity with gold but also to the conception of power...