Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

The Popular Front in Spain: A Pre-Civil War Coalition

This document outlines the program of the Popular Front, a significant coalition formed between Republican and Socialist parties in Spain. Constituted just one month before the pivotal 1936 elections, this left-wing alliance united against a common enemy: the rising threat of fascism. Authored by a collective of representatives from both Republican and Socialist parties, this text serves as a primary source document, offering a historical perspective on a critical period.

Historical Context: The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936)

Proclamation of the Republic and Early Instability (1931-1933)

In 1931, the results of municipal elections led to the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in...

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician and central figure of the Indian National Congress party, and to date the only female Prime Minister of India. Indira Gandhi was the daughter of India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. Despite her surname Gandhi, she is not related to the family of independence leader Mahatma Gandhi. She served as Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and then again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, making her the second-longest-serving Prime Minister of India after her father. Indira Gandhi was the first woman prime minister of India.

Early Political Career

Gandhi served as her father's personal assistant and hostess during his tenure...

General Porfirio Diaz seized power in 1876. Having installed himself as president, Diaz paid his respects to the principle of no re-election by allowing a trusted crony, General Manuel Gonzalez, to succeed him in 1880. Diaz returned to the presidential palace in 1884 and continued to occupy it until his resignation and flight from Mexico in 1911. The Porfiriato was one of the longest personal dictatorships in Latin American history.

Political Control and Economic Objectives

• By 1880, Diaz had granted even more lavish subsidies for railway construction to North American companies.
• Economic development was Diaz's primary objective, key to solving his problems and the nation's.
• Diaz promoted a policy of conciliation, described by the formula pan o

John Maynard Keynes

British economist. Solution to economic depression, government spending to raise the economy. His ideas have profoundly affected the theory of modern macroeconomics policies.

Adolf Hitler

Leader of Germany in WWII. "Mein Kampf" argues that Germans deserve living space. Advocated for the elimination of Jewish people.

Erich Maria Remarque

German author who wrote "All Quiet on the Western Front."

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Focused on motivation and the subconscious.

Benito Mussolini

Leader of Italy. Founder of Italian Fascism. Military dictator who sought to create an empire like Rome. Close to the Nazi regime in Germany.

John Steinbeck

American author. Wrote about the suffering of

Main Features of the Nazi Regime

The Nazi regime was a totalitarian dictatorship. Adolf Hitler dissolved all political parties and unions and closed the Parliament. Elections and individual liberties were abolished. Systematic persecution of political opponents began. The Nazi Party was the only authorized political party, and the National Labor Front was the only permitted union.

Public administration was purged through a law authorizing dismissal for political and racial reasons. The judiciary lost its independence and became subject to the will of the party. Local authorities in the different states were removed and their powers transferred to the Reich. The Nazi state sought total cohesion of German society, based on the supposed superiority...

This document assesses the industrial development of Spain and Catalonia in relation to the more industrialized countries of Europe. Spain took a while to develop its industry. As we can see in the graphic, other countries were already highly industrialized by the year 1870, whereas Spain and Catalonia, seven years later, in 1877, were not yet equal to other countries. Most of its economic sector continued to be based on the primary sector, and there was very little population engaged in the secondary and tertiary sectors. We can also observe that Catalonia became industrialized before the rest of Spain.

Obstacles to Industrialization in Spain

Spaniards encountered the problem of a lack of money. They had only the money necessary to live, and...

Presidential System

Originating from limited monarchies, where the monarch's power is constrained by objective rules, the presidential system maintains a similar structure.

To preserve the framework of a limited monarchy, the legislative and executive branches operate independently, without any hierarchical dependencies. Each branch fulfills its constitutional role without needing to consider the other.

Features

• Monistic Executive Power: The president, directly elected by the people, embodies both the head of state and government. They appoint and dismiss cabinet members, known as secretaries.
• Absence of a Confidence Relationship: The president's direct popular legitimacy eliminates the need for a vote of confidence or censure motion from parliament.

Spanish Journalism

Print journalism has undergone several changes. In the first half of the century, the work was more focused on information, using news stories and chronicles. In the second half, with the advent of radio and TV, the focus shifted to critical analysis. In recent years, major newspapers offer an electronic version via the Internet.

It has been named the fourth power due to its influence on society.

The Early Twentieth Century

The political press was emphasized, although some publications were defined as independent. They sought profitability using advertising but did not reach large print runs due to illiteracy.

World War

During World War I, the press collaborated with the army. Photojournalism was developed.

Dictatorship

• With Primo

Ferdinand VII's Reign: A Struggle Between Absolutism and Liberalism

The War of Independence against Napoleon presented Spain with the opportunity to experience firsthand the political developments taking place in Europe. While the Spanish people united to defeat the French invaders, the French presence also introduced revolutionary ideas and precipitated the formation of a liberal government in Cadiz. However, the majority of the Spanish populace remained largely unaware of these new liberal ideas. This became evident when the desired prince, Ferdinand VII, repealed the policies of the Cortes of Cadiz and restored a reactionary form of absolutism.

In 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain and ruled until his death in 1833. After overriding the...

The Decline of Enlightened Despotism: Charles IV (1788-1808)

Charles IV (1788-1808), son and successor of Charles III, attempted to continue their moderate reformist and authoritarian politics. His reign introduced several key features:

The Government of a Valid

At first, Charles IV kept his father's trusted political leaders, such as Floridablanca and Aranda. Soon, he chose Manuel Godoy as his valid, who, between 1792 and 1808, was the main implementer of the monarchy's policy. This system weakened the image of the rulers.

The Influence of the French Revolution

Starting in 1789, the revolutionary process influenced the Enlightenment and, therefore, Spanish politics. Some supporters moderated their ideas, while other intellectuals, tired of the...