Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for History for Baccalaureate

Tsar Nicholas II was compelled to abdicate in February 1917 due to several interconnected factors:

• He initiated some economic and social reforms but failed to address Russia's deep-seated problems, including social divisions, a weak economy, and an obsolete autocratic monarchy.
• His regime and institutions were highly vulnerable to the pressures of World War I, and he was held responsible for the war's failures.
• Nicholas II demonstrated an inability to manage the Russian internal revolution of 1917, leading to a loss of support from both the Duma and the army.

Russia's State at the Beginning of the 20th Century

At the dawn of the 20th century, Russia lagged behind other European powers. Its economy heavily relied on inefficient agriculture, and its...

The 1936 Elections and the Rise of the Right

The 1936 election campaign showed that support for the right grew in the Canary Islands over the previous three years. But in reality, the left had won in seven out of twenty-two municipalities and secured victories in six island capitals (all except Puerto del Rosario).

The February elections were the last chance for the right-wing parties. They concluded that their ideology should prevail in the midst of a democratic leftist government. After the coup, more affluent groups automatically supported the military officers, some of whom had previously supported the establishment of the Republic.

Franco and the Anti-Republican Conspiracy

In April 1936, General Francisco Franco was the commanding general...

Government Crises Under Manuel Azaña

During Manuel Azaña's government, revolutionary general strikes began. These strikes were the mechanism by which the anarchists sought to carry out their revolutionary project.

Major Anarchist Strikes (1931–1933)

1. The Llobregat Basin Strike (Late 1931 – Early 1932): This strike, which was not highly significant in the long term, originated in the Llobregat Basin. It ended badly, dispersed by the Civil Guard and the Assault Guard. There were deaths, detentions, and imprisonments, but the movement was halted. Azaña disliked the idea that the anarchists were not supportive of his government.
2. The Casas Viejas Uprising (January 1933): This crisis originated in the town of Casas Viejas, Cádiz (Andalusia). The

Alfonso XIII's Farewell Manifesto (1931)

Text Type and Historical Context

This political-social text, dated March 17, 1931, is Alfonso XIII's manifesto. It is considered a primary source, written just days after municipal elections where Republican candidates secured significant victories in major Spanish cities. The manifesto served as Alfonso XIII's farewell, marking a pivotal moment in Spain's history.

Alfonso XIII's Reign and Challenges

Alfonso XIII reigned as King of Spain until the declaration of the Second Republic. His reign was characterized by profound challenges, including the aftermath of the Disaster of '98, significant economic and social unrest, and political instability. Following the political failure of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship,...

Key Theorists and Political Figures

• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Primary theorists of Marxism.
• Mikhail Bakunin: The most influential figure in anarchist thought.

The Restoration and Political Systems

• Sagasta: Presided over the government three times during the Democratic Sexennium.
• Cánovas: Architect of the Canovista system, which established a bipartisan political framework, pacified the country, and ended the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.

Catalan Political Figures

• Conservative Catalans: Manuel Duran i Bas, Josep Ferrer i Vidal, Manuel Girona, and Joan Mañé i Flaquer.
• Liberal Catalans: Víctor Balaguer, Francesc de Paula Rius i Taulet.
• Enric Prat de la Riba: Articulated his political doctrine in La nacionalitat catalana (1906).

Republican

The Enlightenment and Enlightened Despotism

Core Concepts of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment is defined as a school of thought characterized by the use of reason to understand natural and social reality, with France serving as the primary center of diffusion. Its doctrinal characteristics include:

• Predominance of reason.
• Defense of the autonomy of political power.
• Conception of religious tolerance.
• Interest in productive activities.
• Understanding the importance of education.

Enlightened Despotism Under Charles III

Enlightened despotism in Spain found its best representative in Charles III. This monarch adopted several Enlightenment premises: concern for improving the economy, the rationalization of the state, and the acceptance of the king as the...

Stages of the Spanish Civil War

First Stage: The Advance on Madrid (July-Nov 1936)

Military operations began the week following the uprising, leading to a phase of the civil war known as the 'War of Columns'. Nationalist forces advanced towards Madrid. By late October, the conquest of the capital appeared imminent, but many men and women on the Republican side resisted it.

Second Stage: Battles Around Madrid & North (Dec 1936-Oct 1937)

The second phase was longer and characterized by the stabilization of both armies. After the failure to occupy Madrid, the Nationalists decided to change strategy in April 1937. During this period, the world's first major bombing of a civilian population occurred (e.g., Guernica).

Third Stage: Advance Towards

European Political Landscape in 1908

The political map of 1908 represents the strained international relations among the great powers of Europe. These nations struggled for European hegemony and the colonization of territories. As the situation shows, Europe was divided into two major blocs that would eventually clash in the First World War:

• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
• Triple Entente: Russia, France, and the United Kingdom.

Internal Dynamics of the Great Powers

France

Established as a republic, France was ready to avenge its defeat in the Battle of Sedan against Germany, a loss that resulted in the cession of Alsace and Lorraine.

Germany

Germany operated under an authoritarian regime with significant individual power. Until...

Since 1850, the authoritarianism and corruption of moderate governments intensified. This was compounded by Carlist opposition. Democrats, who had made their appearance in the uprisings of 1848 in some Spanish cities, demanded universal suffrage.

The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)

The most significant revolution of 1854 was organized by moderate leftists and carried out with the pronouncement of General O'Donnell to overthrow the government. After an initial difficult time following a clash with government troops, O'Donnell managed to attract the support of broad popular strata, progressives, and Democrats with the publication of the Manifesto of Manzanares. The manifesto demanded reform of electoral and printing laws, decentralization of state...

The Nation and the State

Distinction Between Nations, Countries, Republics, and States

Country

A country has geographical significance. When we look for a country, we seek it on a map.

Republic

A republic is a strictly legal-political expression representing the power of the state; it refers to a specific form of government.

• Historically, the republic has been opposed to the monarchy.
• In a republic, the head of state is derived from the popular will.
• A republic should not be confused with a democracy, nor should a republican regime be conflated with democratic systems.

Nation

A nation is inextricably linked to the existence of the state. While every nation is entitled to become a state, there are also states that encompass several nations. For example,...