Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geology for Baccalaureate

Framework: The Nineteenth Century

Sociopolitical Landscape and Conflicts

The second half of the 19th century marked significant societal shifts. The bourgeoisie conflict affected social structures, leading to clashes between the proletariat and established classes. Liberalism stood out, facing confrontations between the bourgeoisie and nationalism on one side, and socialism and anarchism on the other.

Following the Franco-Prussian War and the unification imposed in 1871, the nation-state model developed. With colonialism, Europe imposed its values globally, accompanied by artistic movements such as Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Impressionism, and Modernism. Notable figures of the era include writers (Victor Hugo), painters (Renoir), and musicians...

Definitions:

Census: A count of the individual population of a country at a given moment. It compiles demographic, economic, social and cultural data on the inhabitants of the country.

Characteristics: individual enumeration, covering all inhabitants, the omission or non-duplication of persons, and simultaneity. A census can distinguish between de facto population (residents + transients) and de jure population (residents + absentees). Since 1900 in Spain it has been conducted every 10 years (ending in 5). Spain's population was updated to 40.8 million.

Municipal register: A register of the inhabitants of each municipality, compiling economic, demographic and social data. This public record is constantly updated by municipalities.

Civil registry:

Agricultural Landscapes of Spain

Agricultural landscapes: they present a rural character in which a natural environment (physical factors) combines with agricultural activity carried out by people (human factors).

The Northern Peninsular Strip (Cantabrian Coast)

Relief and climate: the area has a rugged, steep relief, with small surfaces of flat land and abundant rainfall.

a) Structure

• Population: the agrarian population was traditionally very numerous. Agriculture provided sufficient income, so there was little emigration and the population remained settled. Settlement was dispersed (aldeas, parroquias, villages).
• Property system: smallholding predominates. Peasant owners hold small plots (parcelas, pumas) divided and fragmented across generations.

Renaissance

Renaissance characteristics: development and application of linear perspective, consideration of the model of classical art and beauty, study of old monuments and their influence on the effects of light, and the aim to capture the spirit of classicism.

Historical context

Renaissance: The Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century and spread across Europe. It brought transformations that are known as the Renaissance or the Modern Age: individualism, the rise of commerce, the appearance of the bourgeoisie, large geographical discoveries, the development of universities and the dissemination of scientific and classical philosophy, and the decline of religious values.

Humanism

Humanism arrived in Italy thanks to the arrival of intellectuals...

The Political Regime and the October Revolution

Following the October Revolution, power in Russia was presided over by Lenin and the Bolsheviks, who dominated the political landscape although there was initially representation from other parties. The Bolshevik party was the most organized and active, controlling a major part of the soviets.

At the end of 1917, elections were held to choose a constituent assembly. The response to the Bolshevik party's lack of a majority was a coup d'état to prevent the assembly from meeting again. From this moment onward, the difficulties faced by the revolution served to increase Bolshevik power. These difficulties included:

• The Russian Civil War and foreign aggression.
• Boycotts by capitalists and kulaks.
• The elimination

Theories of Species and Evolution

Fixism: Philosophical current in which species are immutable and do not change over time. Its defender was Aristotle.

Creationism: Religious position defended by Christians, which holds that God created each species at the beginning of time. The Bible was interpreted literally.

Spontaneous generation: Section of agencies that supposedly produced living beings from inert substrates, without prior parent organisms.

Evolutionism: Species change and evolve, and descendants acquire characteristics from their progenitors.

Lamarck

Lamarck argued that species are not invariable but evolve from other species through two principles: the use and disuse of organs, causing major development or atrophy, and the inheritance of

Waves and Signals

Frequency: The number of cycles a signal completes in a given period of time, measured at a specific moment in time.

Wavelength: The distance between two points of a wave that are in the same phase.

Power: Power is the same as voltage across the terminals. Signals carry the power provided.

Impedance: The resistance offered to the current flow.

Level: The level is the sum of all cycle values.

Effective level: The same DC value that generates the same power as the original signal.

Topology

Distribution network: Two or more devices distribute the signal to two or more receptor points.

System uptake: Elements receive the signal and transmit it through cables.

Formed by antennas, which transform signals into electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical

Origins of Nineteenth Century Nationalism

The concept of the nation experienced significant ideological differences and developments driven by the French Revolution. Subjects transitioned from personal loyalty to feudal and absolute monarchs toward the status of active citizens under a legal framework established by a constitution. Individuals began to belong to a primary community, sharing culture, customs, language, and exercising civic rights. Most liberals of the 19th century were generally considered nationalists, working to substitute old feudal states with national states.

The expansion of Napoleon's army and the creation of new monarchies permitted the circulation of nationalist ideas throughout Europe. This era saw the development of...

Materials Processes and Industrial Materials

Materials processes industrial: materials and energy, 2 elements: impresc. TT of the processes industrial.

Criteria for Selecting Materials

Properties, qualities, aesthetics, processes, manufacturing cost, availability, and environmental impact.

Mechanical Properties

Describe the behavior of materials when subjected to external forces. Forces such as tensile, compression, shear, and cohesion forces are much less than the internal cohesion of the material. The material resists, but if the internal force is exceeded, the material deforms or breaks.

Mechanical properties of materials are measured through laboratory testing.

Elongation Unit

Relation between the initial and final length.

Mechanical Strength and

Gothic architecture will characterize the search for light, which becomes the dominant metaphor of God. Salvation, the construction of buildings that seem to twitch, and the soul's ascent to heaven all reflect Christian belief in God. The predominance of the l of the walls disappears, and walls are replaced by windows that allow light in, fragmented into many colors, which invades the interior of the cathedrals.

Columns, Arches and Vaults

The columns become slender and are converted into thin, circular columns, called bakerns. The pillars, in their thickness, are no longer sufficient to withstand the vertical thrusts. The oblique thrusts are countered by buttresses, which are supported by external flying buttresses that run along the outside...