19th Century Philosophy and Sociopolitical Shifts

Framework: The Nineteenth Century

Sociopolitical Landscape and Conflicts

The second half of the 19th century marked significant societal shifts. The bourgeoisie conflict affected social structures, leading to clashes between the proletariat and established classes. Liberalism stood out, facing confrontations between the bourgeoisie and nationalism on one side, and socialism and anarchism on the other.

Following the Franco-Prussian War and the unification imposed in 1871, the nation-state model developed. With colonialism, Europe imposed its values globally, accompanied by artistic movements such as Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Impressionism, and Modernism. Notable figures of the era include writers (Victor Hugo), painters (Renoir), and musicians (Verdi).

The Rise of Science and Philosophy

Experimental science gained prestige due to its progress. The 19th century was convinced of the scientific method, believing that science could solve humanity's problems.

Philosophical Systems

After the death of Kant, absolute idealism emerged with Hegel, presenting a philosophical system centered on reason to interpret history. Karl Marx sought to transform the world. Auguste Comte and John Stuart Mill proposed replacing religion and metaphysics with science. Max Stirner considered the individual human paramount. Arthur Schopenhauer's irrationalism identified the Kantian "thing-in-itself" as the Will, the essence of reality.

Philosophical Influences

Schopenhauer's philosophy drew influence from the Greek philosopher Heraclitus, admiring his aphoristic style. He accused Socrates and Plato of being philosophical creators of grave errors that led to cultural decadence.

• From the Sophists, he adopted the relativistic theory, leading to perceptivism.
• He recognized the influence of Voltaire, Hume, and Kant.
• He accepted the aesthetic conception of existence from Schiller and Goethe.
• He valued the revaluation of the individual from Stirner and Feuerbach.

20th Century Echoes

The most powerful influence was irrational voluntarism. The 20th century saw Nietzsche prophesy wars and politics. His thought had a strong influence on anarchism, and he also inspired the psychoanalysis of Alfred Adler. Martin Heidegger considered that Nietzsche failed to overcome nihilism, a theory that would later be surpassed. His influence is observed in atheist existentialists like Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, in postmodern philosophy, and inspired Spanish writers such as Pío Baroja and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, with echoes also seen in José Ortega y Gasset and Fernando Savater.