Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for University

The Incas

The region where the Incas developed featured high mountains rising from the sea, deserted coastlines, coastal waters rich in fish, a lack of rainfall, well-preserved arid soil, and short rivers flowing from high snowfields. Although there was little arable land, certain valleys supported a wide variety of crops. The lower lands were used to grow maize, while higher lands were used to raise llamas and alpacas for meat and wool.

Origins and Early Development

The origins of the Incas date back to 2500 BCE. The life of Archaic Peruvians developed along the coast, where they fished, gathered food, and cultivated squash and lima beans. Following a long period of simple living, a strong cultural advancement began. Between 900 and 500 BCE,...

Grasses (Poaceae)

These are the most important species in terms of abundance and biomass in grasslands and pastures worldwide. Most are herbaceous, sun-loving, and relatively nitrophilous (adapted to colonizing bare plots). They possess shallow, fasciculated root systems and provide abundant carbohydrates but lower protein supply, except during early growth.

1. Ryegrass (Genus Lolium)

1.1. Italian Ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum)

Widely used in Spain as a crop or mixed with legumes. It offers good nutritional value. It is specialized for exploitation.

1.2. Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne)

Easy to establish, persistent, and resistant to trampling. It has good nutritional value for grazing because it does not grow as tall as the Italian ryegrass and...

The German Nazi State and Party Merger

In Germany, the state exhibited greater strength. There was a merger between the state and the Nazi Party. The fact that the rise of the Nazi Party proceeded more slowly than in the case of Italian Fascism forced numerous initial adaptation efforts and negotiations with representatives of the traditional German right.

The need to win over the electorate made the Nazis exercise restraint and assume a relative willingness to express commitments set forth in the rule of law. Ultimately, Adolf Hitler gained undeniably greater power than Benito Mussolini.

The Spread of Related Movements in Europe

Beyond Italian Fascism and German National Socialism, many other movements were more or less related to them.

Fascist

Romanesque and Gothic Art

• Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070–1080. Harold Sailing the Sea and Battle of Hastings.
• Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy, 11^th century. Conques, France.
• Reliquary Statue of Sainte-Foy, late 10^th to early 11^th century with later additions. Gold, silver gilt, jewels, and cameos over a wooden core. 2’9.5”. Conques, Sainte-Foy Treasury.
• Saint-Denis, 1140–1144. Saint-Denis (near Paris), France.
• Chartres Cathedral, c. 1145–1155. Restoration begun 2013. Chartres, France.

Civic Architecture and Secular Frescoes

• Hall of the Cloth Guild, begun 1230. Bruges, Belgium.
• Palazzo Vecchio, 1299–1310. Florence, Italy.
• Palazzo Ducale (Ducal Palace), begun c. 1340–1345. Venice, Italy.
• Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Sala della Pace, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena,

Wole Soyinka: A Literary Pioneer

Wole Soyinka is a renowned Nigerian playwright, poet, novelist, and critic. Due to his vocal criticism of the government, Soyinka has been imprisoned several times and has lived in exile for long periods since the 1970s.

Artistic Style and Influences

Soyinka's plays range from comedy to tragedy and from political satire to the theatre of the absurd. He masterfully combines influences from Western traditions with African myths, legends, and folklore, incorporating techniques such as singing and drumming.

Early Life and Education

Born in Abeokuta, southwestern Nigeria, during its time as a British colony, Soyinka was a member of the Yoruba tribe. He was educated at the University College of Ibadan and later moved to...

Seagrass Ecological Contributions

Seagrasses release pollen for cross-pollination, produce seeds for propagation, and spread through rhizomes, colonizing seafloors.

Fauna of Seagrass Beds

Turtles

Green sea turtles graze on seagrass, similar to deer pruning shrubs, stimulating growth and adding nitrogen to the ecosystem.

Manatees

Manatees forage in estuaries and seagrass beds, consuming large quantities of seagrass and using their bristles to clear and uproot plants.

Seagrass Habitat Preferences

Turtle Grass

Dominant below low tide mark to ten feet.

Shoalweed

Dominant closest to shore; best tolerance for freshwater.

Manateegrass

Mixed with Turtle grass; Dominant below ten feet.

Caribbean Seagrass

Mixed with Turtle grass and Shoalweed.

Sponge, Rock, and Reef

The Great Cochineal Era (1831–1880)

The cochineal is a parasite of the Las Tunas (prickly pear) plant, brought to the region by migrants from Nicaragua, Honduras, and Mexico. From this insect, a vibrant red dye was extracted, which was used extensively for dyeing fabrics and contributed to the emergence of soft drink industries in France and other nations.

The success of this product was bolstered by agricultural plagues that wiped out crops in competing countries like Nicaragua, Honduras, and Mexico. By 1865, over 1,000 tons of cochineal were exported from the Canary Islands to England and France. This economic expansion directly led to the construction of the Port de la Luz in Las Palmas and the Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

However, in...

Economic Developments in the United States

The United States presents some unique features that attract attention from the moment we begin to study its economic past.

• It comprises an enormous area and was settled only gradually.
• It created a market within its own territory.
• From the first moment, a series of regions with very specific financial interests arose.
• The historic tradition was not heavy because virtually none existed: no traces of feudalism, and much of the territory was occupied by immigrants, mainly from Europe.

Post-Independence Growth and Infrastructure

The decades after independence (1783) were characterized by intense social and economic development, coupled with strong population growth. Geographic features stimulated the development...

Rural and Urban Demographics

Rural Areas: The population density is low, houses are isolated from each other, and the population is mainly engaged in working the land.

Public Space: The population density is high, the houses are close together, and the population is engaged in industrial, commercial, and service sectors.

Factors Influencing Population Distribution

Physical Factors

• Climate: Low temperatures, aridity, and constant moist heat can limit settlement.
• Altitude: Since there is a limit above which life is made difficult by the lack of oxygen, the population tends to cluster in areas near the sea.
• Terrain: While mountains are challenging places to settle, valleys and plains encourage agricultural, industrial, and commercial activities.
• Water:

The Germans however gradually grow in number until 1875.
A second wave occurs from 1880 to 1914. It is the so-called new immigration (New immigration) and corresponds with the fall of demographic vitality in Western Europe. Between 1878-1914, about 20 million Europeans left the continent. By 1878 the annual rate was about 250 million inhabitants. 1890 was 750 million. In 1900 a million and in 1913 of more than 2 million. This enormous amount of migrants, others to generate a renewal, he served for a launch of the American countries attenuating the effects of unemployment in Europe and that would have catastrophic effects. Latin and Slavic forms the bulk of the second wave and among them the Italian, Spanish, Russian, Polish, Romanian .......