Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Secondary education

The Islamic Invasion and the Marca Hispanica

In the 8th century, Muslim forces invaded the Iberian Peninsula and conquered Ebro and Catalonia. By the 9th century, with the help of Frankish kings, the northern region of Catalonia expelled the Arabs.

• Catalunya Vella (Old Catalonia): This region was never Islamicized.
• Catalunya Nova (New Catalonia): The territories in the south and west remained under the control of Al-Andalus for over 300 years, including the Taifas of Tortosa and Lleida.

Preserved Islamic Heritage

Notable buildings of Islamic origin preserved in Catalonia include La Seu Vella, various castle walls, and Siurana.

The Marca Hispanica and the Counts of Barcelona

Frankish warriors entered Catalan territory to protect the southern border

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Causes of Mortality Decline and Agrarian Reform

Causes of mortality decline: Increased agricultural production and an improving diet. Agrarian Liberal Reform: A set of reforms whose goal was the dissolution of the Old Regime in the countryside. This involved splitting property, the desamortización (confiscation) of church and municipal lands, and the consolidation of private properties.

The Rise of the Spanish Textile Industry

1802: A ban on the import of cotton stimulated the proliferation and birth of the spinning and textile industry. 1830: Mechanization began with the installation of spinning machines from Britain. 1833: The first steam engine was introduced. The mechanization of factories (using steam or vapor) saw a big boost between 1830...

Social Classes Post-French Revolution

The French Revolution introduced the equality of all citizens before the law, eliminating privileged classes. However, social classes emerged, grouping people according to their economic level. These included:

The Ruling Classes

• Nobility

  Derived its income from vast land holdings, increasing productivity and profit through the introduction of modern agricultural techniques.

• Upper Middle Class

  Engaged in industrial, commercial, banking, and agricultural enterprises, amassing great fortunes that rivaled the luxury of the old nobility.

The Middle Class

This class was formed by a diverse set of comerciantes (merchants). While their political positions were often close to the ruling classes, they were separated by voting...

Population Demographic Structure

The census, the population census, and the Labor Force Survey (LFS) provide crucial insights into the structural characteristics of a population. This information enables a comprehensive structural analysis, characterizing the population by its:

• Demographic characteristics: such as gender distribution.
• Social characteristics: including marital status and education levels.
• Economic characteristics: covering occupation, activity rates, and unemployment.
• Geographic characteristics: like place of residence.

Sex Ratio: Understanding Gender Distribution

The relationship of femininity, also known as the sex ratio, measures the number of women per hundred men. Spain's sex ratio is currently below the European average. The...

Stages of the French Revolution

Stage	Dates	Constitution and Features	Most Important Events
Monarchy	1789-1792	1791 Constitution: Constitutional monarchy, power distribution, and male censitary suffrage.	Abolition of Feudalism Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) Nationalization of Church goods
Convention	1792-1794	Constitution of 1793: Universal male suffrage; Jacobins in power.	Proclamation of the Republic and abolition of the Monarchy Execution of Louis XVI The Reign of Terror
Directory	1794-1799	1795 Constitution: Legislative power corresponds to the Chamber; Executive power held by the Directory; Girondins in power.	European war against absolute monarchies Revolutionary and anti-organized uprisings by the Jacobins
Consulate	1799-1804	Constitution

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Causes of Discoveries

• New maps will be developed.
• Widespread use of navigation instruments.
• Appearance of new types of ships.

The Authoritarian Monarchies

Established a series of effective mechanisms for decision-making:

• Created bureaucracies.
• Strengthened the military.
• Increased taxation.
• Created a strengthened diplomatic network for Hispanica.

The Monarchy of Philip II

The empire was the most powerful of his era. In 1580, upon the death of the Portuguese king (who was the son of a Portuguese infanta), Philip claimed his rights over the crown.

Where We Live (Settlement Factors)

People tend to settle in areas characterized by:

• Abundant water supply.
• Temperate zones.
• Valleys and plains.
• Areas with natural resources.

Areas with High Densities of Population

• The

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Surrealism in America: Key Generations

The development of Surrealism in America can be categorized into distinct generations:

• Generation Surrealism (1927): Influenced by the precursor of psychoanalysis, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud.
• Generation Neorealist (1942): Also known as New Realism, drawing inspiration from nineteenth-century realism. Their model is Marxism, exemplified by Carlos Droguett (e.g., The Murdered Worker Insurance).
• Generation Unrealistic (1957): Marked the consolidation of Surrealism, reinforcing the characteristics of the first generation.
• Generation Novísima (1972): A primary example of this generation is Mario Vargas Llosa.

Spanish Monarchy: Habsburgs and Bourbons

Key Reigns and Historical Periods

• Charles V (Carlos V):

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Foundations of Ecology and the Environment

Ecosystems and Biotic Factors

• Ecosystem Definition: The collection of living beings in a particular place and the relationships that exist between them and their environment.
• Ecosystem Confirmation: Yes, because animals live there and interact.
• Biotic and Abiotic Components:
  • Abiotic Factors: Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, Atmosphere.
  • Biotic Factors: Animals, Plants, Soil.
• Biocenosis: A collection of communities constitutes a biocenosis.
• The Biosphere: A functional unit formed by living matter on Earth and the space where environmental conditions support life.

Landscape and Contamination

• Components of a Landscape: Relief, Climate, Vegetation, and Hydrography.
• Water and Soil Contamination: Water can be contaminated

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Key Economic and Political Terminology

Core Economic Concepts

Market

The area where sellers and buyers act as trading partners.

Capital

The money and infrastructure needed to start a business or enterprise.

Yield

Production divided by the land surface area.

Productivity

The relationship between labor input and time spent.

Overproduction

Occurs when market demand is less than production, generating stored surpluses, often referred to as "stock."

GDP (Gross Domestic Product)

The total monetary value of goods and services produced within a country in a specific period.

Major Organizations and Acronyms

• CNT: Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (Confederation of Work).
• UCD: Unión de Centro Democrático (Union of Democratic Centers).
• ECSC: European Coal and

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Warm Climates

• Equatorial: High temperatures year-round (avg 25°C). Abundant precipitation (+2000 mm/year). No dry season.
• Tropical Rainforest: High temperatures (avg +20°C). Abundant rainfall (less than 2000mm) with distinct wet and dry seasons.
• Tropical Dry: Warm summers, mild winters (avg 18°C). Low precipitation (+250mm) with a long dry season.
• Desert Climate: High temperature variance between day and night (avg +20°C). Very low rainfall (-250mm).

Cold Climates

• Polar: Consistently cold (below 0°C). Less than 250mm precipitation, primarily as snow.
• High Mountain: Temperature decreases with altitude. Cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation increases with height, often falling as snow.

Temperate Climates

• Mediterranean: Mild winters, warm summers

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