Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

The Evolution of Gothic Architecture

Gothic architecture found its ultimate expression in the cathedral, with the French model serving as its most representative form. A new spirituality, combined with technical and structural innovations, allowed for the construction of taller and brighter buildings, even as they maintained the Latin cross plan.

Key Structural Elements

The primary elements driving this change included:

• The pointed arch and the ribbed vault: These lighter structures allowed weight to be distributed onto columns and pillars.
• Stained glass windows: Thanks to these structural shifts, architects were able to open large windows richly decorated with stained glass.
• Flying buttresses and spurs: To counterbalance the weight of the vaults

City Christian Realm

It develops from north to south. It is a walled city, featuring a castle, and fortifications (checking border protection and fiscal aspects).

• Church towers and the Camino de Santiago are prominent features.
• Religious Orders establish convents and monasteries in outer areas and suburbs.
• It functions as a commercial and industrial city; unions operate where the master's house is located, with workshops on the lower floor.
• The layout is labyrinthine but less chaotic than Islamic cities.
• Growth is organic (without initial planning).
• The real foundation of the city often follows a geometric organizational form, such as in Villareal.

The Thirteenth to Fifteenth Century City

During the XIII–XV centuries, the city is revitalized, incorporating...

Spain's population has surpassed 46 million people, driven largely by foreign residents. The progress of the latest census, dated January 1, 2008, was published yesterday by the National Statistics Institute (INE) and shows the largest increase in population since 2004.

Key figures from the INE census

The total figure increased by 862,774 people in one year, more than double the growth that occurred in the previous year. The increase is due mainly to foreigners: eight out of ten new residents were born outside Spain. The number of foreigners reached 5.22 million, more than 11% of the total population. The national increase was only 0.4%, while the foreign population increased by more than 15%.

Origin and composition of foreign residents

More than...

Item 2: Industrialization and Economic Systems

ITEM-2

Industrialisation-Process: the process through which the traditional productive structure of a society is transformed, leading to the strengthening and modernization of industrial and service sectors.

Manufacturing-system: a system that mainly consisted of workers who receive training and tools and are paid a salary to produce manufactured goods.

Liberalism-economic: a doctrine and economic system based on the conviction that individual freedom of action, within certain natural or legal constraints, leads the economy toward optimum production with minimum possible cost.

System-Capitalism-or: the capitalist system, a mode of production characterized by advanced technology, private ownership of...

Water Use and Management in Spain

The use of water resources has a long tradition in Spain. From Roman constructions (water supply, introduction of irrigation, etc.) to the Arabs who implemented a water culture in the service of agriculture. This line of thought culminated with the National Public Works Plan of 1933, which included the construction of dams, reservoirs, and water transfers, continuing into the 1960s.

Currently, water demand in Spain exceeds 30,000 hm³, distributed across the following applications:

Urban and Industrial Supplies

In countries like ours, consumption exceeds 300 liters/inhabitant/day, representing 14% of the total.

Agricultural Uses

The uneven distribution of rainfall necessitates irrigation for many crops. This requires...

- Economic and Social Developments

Since the beginning of the century until 1680, the economy was in a stage of depression. Two factors intervened:

1. the demographic crisis: the three epidemics of plague, the expulsion of the Moors (1609–1611), and lower birth rates.
2. The economic stress caused by continuous war, which generated a public finance debt, continued bankruptcies, and monetary changes.

Trade also entered a recession. French competition in the Mediterranean and English and Dutch competition in the Atlantic, together with the depletion of the American mines, worsened the situation. The result of the commercial crisis was a decline in circulation.

The manifestations of this crisis included the decline in agricultural production, the decline

Urbanization and Industrialization

The Restoration was a period of political stability during which Spain experienced significant social and economic modernization.

Population Growth

Natural Movements

The Spanish population grew throughout the 19th century, with the most intense growth occurring in the first half of the century. In 1877, the population was 16 million, and by 1900, it did not exceed 18 million. Early in the 20th century, growth accelerated, reaching 20 million by 1920.

Compared to the rest of Europe, the Spanish population grew at a slower rate. This was primarily due to a high mortality rate and a subdued birth rate. Life expectancy remained low, at approximately 35 years in 1900.

Migratory Movements

Economic hardship in poorer regions...

The Origins of British Industrialization

British Industrialization started in 1780 and spread to Europe during the 19th century. Several factors drove this process, including the formation of a very large market and free movement, which allowed for the free exchange of goods, raw materials, labor, and capital. Legal obstacles hindering free circulation were removed, and Great Britain dominated the seas and overseas trade.

Financial Stability and Capital Accumulation

The existence of capital was crucial; trade expansion and the benefits of new agricultural techniques provided the capital that the industry needed. Creating a stable financial system allowed for savings and investment in the industrial sector. London became the center of global banking;...

Secularization and the Liberal Revolution

Disentailment was a process of agrarian reform that led to the development of capitalism. Its goal was a structural change in land ownership to facilitate its release and remove obstacles that agriculture generally posed to economic development.

Property Under the Old Regime

Property was linked to the Church, the nobility, municipalities, and the State.

Characteristics of Entailed Property

Legal Status

The property belonged to legal entities—such as titled estates, convents, and municipalities—rather than individuals.

Economic Characteristics

Owners could neither sell nor dispose of the property; it could not be distributed among heirs, nor could it be seized for debt.

Liberal Criticism of Mortmain Property

During...

The Aljama and Jewish Communities

Aljama: Aljama neighborhoods were sometimes enclosed in the center or the suburbs of cities and towns with a Christian majority. The term should not be confused with Jewry, as it not only involved a city's Jews but also the inhabitants of the surrounding villages. The Jewish quarter in the Crown of Castile also had economic and tax value. The Aljama Jewish community self-managed the collection of various taxes that the monarchy imposed on them.

Medieval Courts of the Iberian Peninsula

The Rise of the Cortes

From the 12th century, the rise of cities and the economic power of the bourgeoisie increased considerably. This prompted the monarch to grant entry to representatives of the municipalities in the Extraordinary