Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

Evolution of the Economy and Demography (1875–1898)

With the arrival of Alfonso XII, the government presided over an economy centered on agriculture. Characteristics:

• Agriculture had very low-yield land; this was due to poor soil quality and the continued use of traditional working methods.
• Structure of land ownership: many peasants had no land, while landlords were apathetic and conformist.
• Agricultural crisis caused by meteorological factors (bad harvests).

Favorable Lease Systems in Catalonia

Emphyteusis: a lease agreement whereby the tenant held the property or house in perpetuity — effectively for life — provided the farmer paid the periodic cens (a regular payment). The contract could include the owner's agreement allowing the tenant...

Economic Foundations of Al-Andalus

The economy and society were urban and commercial. Crafts, trade, and agriculture were highly developed.

Agriculture, Livestock, and Mining

The primary sector included agriculture, livestock, and mining. The main crops were part of the Mediterranean trilogy based on cereals, vines, and olive trees. Agriculture was developed through the use of irrigation ditches and wells. Additionally, silkworms were raised. The most prominent livestock was sheep, which was dedicated to the production of meat and milk. Mining production continued the Roman heritage; gold, silver, iron, and copper were extracted.

Craft Industry and Commercial Networks

In the craft industry, the textile sector was the most important activity, including...

The Impact of Enclosures on Urbanization

The Enclosure Acts left many peasants landless, forcing them to seek work in cities. This new system of production proved significantly more profitable.

Drivers of the British Industrial Boom

Several conditions favored the industrial expansion in the United Kingdom:

• Political and Institutional Context: A stable environment fostered significant change.
• Maritime Dominance: The UK was the leading global maritime and commercial power.
• Market Expansion: British goods successfully penetrated new international markets.
• Free Trade Policies: Since the 17th century, the country favored free trade, culminating in the 1846 agricultural sector deregulation, which provided a massive boost to industry.

Consequences of Industrial

Agriculture and Land Ownership

Agriculture was the main source of wealth for the Old Regime. Only a small part of the land could be privately owned; others were linked to a title of nobility, the Church, a municipality, or the Crown. All land in the hands of a lord was called territorial dominion. It consisted of the demesne, which were the most productive lands, and the manses (the meek), whose dimensions were sufficient to feed a family.

Manorial Rights and Obligations

Manorial rights included all income and benefits received by the lords under their dominion over the land. The peasants had to perform a series of works in the demesne and also give a percentage of the harvest from the land they worked. In addition, lords required rates for the...

Sustainable Development & Resource Management

Environmental problems are closely linked to development patterns. This leads us to examine two distinct forms of development: uncontrolled development and sustainable development.

Uncontrolled Development: Environmental Consequences

This approach, based on developmental and liberal theory, remains the dominant system in many developed countries today. It has been described as predatory, exploitative, and ultimately unsustainable.

Since liberal economists did not consider the environment as a system in their economic analysis, they were unable to establish the maximum dimensions of the economic system and disregarded the limits of its expansion, hence the goal of continuous growth.

Sustainable Development

Global Inequality and the Millennium Development Goals

Global inequality remains a critical issue, with 19% of the world's population living on less than $1 a day. Notably, the combined income of the 500 richest individuals exceeds that of the 416 million poorest. To address this, the United Nations established eight major objectives at the Millennium Summit to be achieved by 2015, committing all member states to collective action.

1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty

While extreme poverty has been reduced in some regions, progress in sub-Saharan Africa is worsening, and the number of impoverished people is growing. Contributing factors include low agricultural productivity and drought. In South Asia, child malnutrition remains a severe concern.

2. Achieve

Sweet as Sugar

1. b) Not known in Europe until the 16th century.
2. a) Honey was collected.
3. b) Help make a better supply of nectar.
4. b) Reflect the original taste.
5. a) There would be less green stuff.
6. b) The number of people working.
7. c) Comes from hives looked after.
8. a) You will live a much healthier life.

The Best-Seller Connection

1. b) You can see people reading it everywhere.
2. c) Simply enjoys observing them unnoticed.
3. c) She knows that some readers like.
4. a) Accurate.
5. b) Florence, Torino, and the Sorbonne in Paris.
6. a) They were doing works of maintenance.
7. c) The information wasn’t there.
8. a) The information wasn’t extremely.

Threatened Prehistoric Paradise Reveals Its Secrets

1. c) Is the closest place to Conan.
2. d) Found many new species.
3. a) Species are disappearing as.

Socio-Economic Consequences of Rapid Development

1. Internal and External Migration

• The modernization of agriculture (following years of poor harvests due to drought) and the progressive liberalization of the economy expelled 4 million farmers (between 1962 and 1975) from rural areas. These individuals, especially small farmers and laborers from the interior, were forced to abandon their villages and seek employment in more developed areas of Spain or in industrialized European countries.
• Lacking professional qualifications, these migrants were forced to work as cheap labor in the industry, construction, and services sectors, which experienced considerable growth during those years.

2. Mediterranean Tourism Development

• Consolidation of the summer

Theme 17: Transport in Spain and Territorial Role

Transport: Basic Territorial and Economic Elements

Transport is a system that enables the movement of people and goods between geographic locations. Its main elements are the means (vehicles), infrastructure, and the goods transported.

• Historical development: Means of transport have changed considerably. Until more than a century ago, sea transport relied on sailing vessels and land transport used carriages or horses. The nineteenth century saw the development of railways, closely linked to industrialization; the twentieth century brought the automobile, modernization of maritime transport, and widespread use of air transport.
• Infrastructure: Roads, highways, railways, ports, airports and other

Types of International Population Movements

Population movements outside national borders take several forms, primarily directed toward transoceanic emigration to Latin America, the United States, Canada, and Australia. While most cases were permanent, some were temporary. This phenomenon is categorized into three distinct phases of boom and crisis.

Phase A: The First Boom (Mid-19th Century to WWI)

At the start of this period, emigration to America had been significantly reduced due to 18th-century Bourbon population policies that discouraged departure, alongside the independence of former colonies in the early 19th century.

However, the situation changed in 1853 because Latin American countries required immigrants for settlement, facilitating...