Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

Understanding Key Terms in Spanish Agriculture and History

Cortijo

By extension, a Cortijo refers to a type of dispersed rural habitat typical of southern Spain. It consists of residential areas and other units designed for the exploitation of surrounding agriculture. These isolated rural buildings are primarily dedicated to farming, characterized by their unique farmhouse style. Cortijos vary in size, from small to large, with varying numbers of units, depending on the farm's specific type and scale of operation.

Hydroponics

Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil, using mineral nutrient solutions dissolved in water. Plants are typically supported by inert media like gravel, sand, or ashes. While often associated with growing flowers,...

Modern Irrigation and Agricultural Productivity

Drip and spray irrigation have recently exceeded the totals of gravity irrigation, with variations depending on the characteristics of each autonomous community. Biotechnology research and TMB have contributed to increased agricultural productivity due to advances in the selection of seeds, livestock breeds, GM crops, and cloning.

Political Factors in Agriculture

Land policy seeks to ensure the stability of the sector and optimal conditions for agricultural producers. There are different policies to resolve structural problems in Spanish agriculture, such as water shortages and the inadequate size of farms.

Water Management Landmarks

• Hydraulic works
• Creation of the National Institute of Colonization
• National

Stages of Contemporary Spanish Migration

Nineteenth Century to 1959

During this period, increasing population pressure and changes in the agricultural labor market encouraged peasants to seek work in other territorial areas. These migration flows were primarily directed overseas, involving not only Spanish peasants but many other Europeans as well.

As host countries feared an inability to absorb the influx of labor, they introduced immigration restrictions at the beginning of the 20th century. Following the World Wars and the Spanish Civil War, the demographic profile shifted to include qualified young professionals. Galicia was the region that experienced the most significant population loss during this era.

Primary Migration Destinations

• America:

Balance of Payments and Trade Dynamics

Balance of Payments: This refers to the calculation of cash flows between two countries. This includes not only the flows generated by trade but also those incurred for services and all financial transactions in general, such as immigrant remittances and international loans.

Trade Balance: This is the difference between the monetary equivalent of exports and imports. It can be negative if a country imports more than it exported, or positive if the opposite happens.

The Evolution of Industrial Activity

The industry has undergone great changes through the history of mankind. As it develops, energy requirements become higher while manpower needs decrease, moving from the stage of a cottage industry to the increasingly...

The Scramble for Africa: 1914 and Beyond

By 1914, Africa had transformed from a continent of isolated European strategic enclaves into a territory partitioned among major European powers:

• France: Possessed territories in Western Africa.
• Britain: Controlled lands from Egypt and Sudan down to South Africa.
• Other Nations: Germany, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and Belgium also held significant African territories.

The conquest of Africa sparked intense conflicts of interest. To prevent military escalation, the Berlin Conference of 1884 was held, though tensions between France and Britain persisted.

Consequences of Colonialism

The impact on the continent was profound:

• Destruction of indigenous traditions and lifestyles.
• Tribal conflicts, ethnic instability, and

The Mendizábal and Madoz Confiscations

The economist Estrada Flórez harshly criticized the secularization process, arguing that it only benefited and encouraged individualism. His proposal suggested that the land should pass to the state as the owner and that the state, in turn, should lease it to landless peasants over a long period.

The Secularization of Madoz

The Madoz Confiscation started in 1855 to complete the work of Mendizábal, and some of its consequences reached into the early twentieth century. To the confiscation of church property, one must add municipal property, as well as the assets of various public institutions such as hospitals, councils, charities, and universities. This process was again linked to the national debt problem...

Religious Reform Measures and Impact

Antecedents of Church Reform

The Church held excessive social influence and was perceived as a conservative, right-wing force. The power structures (the Army and the Church) were monarchical and conservative. The perceived excessive weight and influence of the Church necessitated separation from the State.

Key Actions of Religious Reform

Church-State Separation

The Church ceased to be maintained and financed by the State, becoming self-financed. This fostered greater religious freedom, allowing for the freedom of religious expression outside the home.

Abolition of Religious Education

Religious instruction was abolished in public schools. The goal was to reduce the Church's influence within society by promoting...

Castile: Government Structure

Central Government

• The Royal Council

  An advisory and administrative body composed of legal experts and noble prelates.

• The Royal Court and Chancilleries

  Officials serving the king included the:

  • Butler
  • Chancellor
  • Constable (chief of the royal army)
  • Admiral (chief of the naval school)

  The Chancillerías served as high courts of justice.

• The Audiencia (Court of Justice)

  The primary judicial body.

• The Hacienda (Treasury)

  Responsible for collecting taxes, such as the alcabala (sales tax) and various tributes. Its operations were controlled by the Contaduría Mayor de Cuentas (Chief Accounting Office).

Territorial Administration

• Provincial Divisions

  Castile was divided into seven provinces, including the Adelantamientos (border regions)

1.4. Agricultural Policy in Spain

In Spain, agricultural policy underwent a huge transformation after entry into the European Union (1986) and the subsequent adoption of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).

Pre-CAP Focus (Mid-Nineteenth Century to CAP Adoption)

The agricultural policy until the adoption of the CAP focused on three main areas:

• The system of land ownership.
• The inadequate size of landed property.
• Trade protectionism.

A) Land Ownership System Reforms

Attempts to change the system of land ownership included:

• The political desamortización (disentailment) of the nineteenth century.
• The agrarian reform of the Second Republic.
• The policy of colonization and expansion of irrigation under Franco.

B) Addressing Inadequate Land Size

This issue was...

1.1 The Overseas Expansion of European Feudal Societies

The transition from feudalism to capitalism occurred as the feudal system, prevalent until the 11th century, began to wither away during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. In Europe, absolute monarchies emerged, giving rise to the Old Regime. This marked the first phase of mercantile capitalism.

During the Modern Age (starting in 1492), capitalism consolidated as an economic system focused on maximizing profit. Spanish and Portuguese forces conquered the Americas using specific mechanisms:

• Conquest: Indigenous societies were forced to pay taxes through labor, such as the Mita, to maintain the state.
• Colonization: This involved the deculturation of native populations and the encomienda system,