Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

1. The Beginnings of Christianity

The early events of the Christian era mark the birth of Christianity as a doctrine, ideology, and state faith. This religious movement continued until 313 AD.

2. The Birth of Islam

In 570 AD, Muhammad was born in Mecca. An orphan, he worked in a caravan company owned by Khadija, a wealthy widow. Knowledgeable in Judaism and Christianity, he began preaching a religion recognizing one God, Allah, in 610 AD. Initially facing opposition from Mecca's inhabitants, Muhammad fled to Yathrib in 622 AD. This flight, known as the Hegira, marks the beginning of the Islamic era. After raising an army and conquering Mecca, Islam gained widespread acceptance.

3. The Expansion of Islam

The Muslim expansion, initiated by Muhammad...

Spain and the European Union

The EU is a community of 27 European states established on November 1, 1993, when the Treaty on European Union came into force.

Spain's Accession to the EU: Reasons for Inclusion

Spain signed the Treaty of Accession to the then European Community in 1985, and its entry became effective in 1986, following a previous application in 1962. The delay was due to political and economic reasons, as Spain's economic backwardness compared to other countries made its entry inadvisable.

With the death of Franco in 1975, the end of his regime, and the promulgation of the Constitution in 1978, Spain's inclusion in the construction of Europe could no longer be denied.

Furthermore, the incorporation of new member countries like Spain...

The Preindustrial City: Origins and Characteristics

The preindustrial city represents the urbanized core of human settlements from their origins. These cities were defined by several distinct stages and features:

• Defensive Walls: Cities were typically enclosed by protective walls.
• Urban Planning: Plans were often uneven, though radial, linear, and grid patterns existed.
• Plot Structure: Closed plots dominated, featuring low-rise houses with yards and gardens, interspersed with prominent landmark buildings.
• Land Use: Diverse and mixed, combining housing with shops and warehouses.
• Social Stratification: Socially diverse groups coexisted, with the center serving as the elite hub for main public buildings.

Historical Urban Models

• Roman City: Characterized

Metropolitan Area: Urban Complex Definition

A Metropolitan Area is an urban complex consisting of several related municipalities whose population exceeds 300,000 inhabitants. These areas function as a unified unit for real estate, labor, transportation, purchasing, and more.

Periurban Area: Rural-Urban Mix

The Periurban Area is the region immediately adjacent to cities, characterized by a mixture of rural and urban uses. It typically has a growing proportion of workers daily commuting to the central city.

Old Quarter: Historic Urban Core

The Old Quarter is an urban area occupied by the old pre-industrial city, which preserves historic buildings. It usually features an irregular or radiocentric plan.

Downtown: Metropolitan Core

Downtown refers to one...

Spain's Population Structure

The Rapid Aging Process

Due to a significant decline in fertility and birth rates since 1890, alongside an increase in life expectancy, the population of Spain has entered a rapid aging process. Life expectancy stands at 84.4 years for women and 78 years for men. These rates are notably higher than the averages for both the European Union and the rest of the world.

Cultural Diversity in Spain

Spain is characterized by great cultural diversity. There are four cultures that are officially recognized: Spanish (Castilian), Catalan, Basque, and Galician. While the Spanish language is the official language of the state, the other three cultures have recognized official status for their languages within their respective regions....

Population Growth and Social Change

In the 1960s, Spain experienced its most significant annual population growth rate of the century, increasing from 30.4 million in 1960 to 33.8 million in 1970. This growth remained high over the following five years, and by 1975, the population exceeded 35.8 million. This demographic surge resulted from a decrease in mortality—particularly infant mortality—and a high birth rate driven by improvements in living conditions.

Natalist Policies and Demographic Trends

The Franco regime promoted a strictly natalist policy, ensuring the fertility rate remained high throughout the decade, reaching 2.8 children per woman by 1975. Simultaneously, infant mortality dropped significantly, falling from 63‰ in 1950 to...

The Spanish Desamortización: Economic & Social Impact

Economic and Social Consequences of Disentailment

The volume of land sold during the Desamortización was impressive, with 50% of cultivable land changing hands. Among the buyers were many landed aristocrats who sought to consolidate and increase their wealth. There were also numerous members of the secular clergy. However, the majority of buyers were from the bourgeoisie, who purchased land primarily as an investment.

Impact on Agriculture and Property Structure

The effects on agriculture were not generally adapted to the economic goals of those pursuing the reforms. While there was an increase in the area of cereals and potatoes under cultivation, thus increasing agricultural productivity,...

Essential Urban Geography Concepts

• Urban Area: A city periphery surrounded by a large built environment that is economically dependent on the central city.
• Rururban Area: A space of transition between the countryside and the town beyond the continuous built-up area on the urban outskirts. It features mixed land use and both rural and urban livelihoods.
• Metropolitan Area: An urban agglomeration formed and concentrated because of important city functions. It becomes the center or organizer of a large area comprising several adjacent municipalities.
• Historic Center (Casco Antiguo): The urbanized part of the city from its origin to the beginning of industrialization in the mid-nineteenth century. It occupies a small area of the city today but has great

Historical Periods and Transitions

The Middle Ages range between the years V and XV (5th to 15th centuries). The Ancient Era ended with the conquest of the Western Roman Empire's capital by Germanic tribes.

In the Middle Paleolithic, the period corresponds to the Neanderthal or Homo sapiens. The two interdependent processes that characterized the Paleolithic were hominization and culture. During this era, primates evolved physically and mentally. Paleolithic bands were organized according to sex and age.

The Fertile Crescent and Early Societies

The most important region where domestication was organized was the Fertile Crescent, which corresponds to the civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The main feature of these pristine civilizations was...

Pre-Roman Civilizations of the Iberian Peninsula

Between the 11th and 4th centuries BC, Indo-European peoples migrated and settled in the northeast mainland and on the plateau, extending north and west.

At the same time, southern regions saw settlements from the Mediterranean. This process, known as historical colonization, is characterized by:

• The foundation of the Phoenician colony of Gadir and along the coasts of Malaga and Granada in the 10th-11th centuries BC.
• Greek settlements on the Catalan coast and the Levant between the 7th and 8th centuries BC, such as Ibiza.
• Carthaginian presence between the 6th and 5th centuries BC.

Greeks also left evidence of the Tartessos civilization, located in southern Spain from the 9th to 7th centuries BC.

Finally,...