Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

Bourbon Absolutism: Centralization of Power

The authoritarian monarchy of Asturias had already begun a process of power concentration in Castilla. However, in the Crown of Aragon, Navarre, and the Basque Country, their own institutions (such as the Cortes) and a degree of sovereignty had been preserved. Bourbon absolutism, established in France with Louis XIV, was imposed upon Spain. This absolute monarch constituted the very embodiment of the state: the territory belonged to him, and authority emanated from his institutions. He was the supreme head of government and justice. Monarchs were supported by loyal and competent advisors who fought against even the few constraints acting on the prerogatives of the Crown.

Weakness of Spanish Industry

The Conquest of the Canary Islands

Castile and Portugal vied for the rights of conquest of the Canary Islands. Finally, in 1479, Portugal relinquished the islands under the Treaty of Alcaçovas. After the Castilian occupation of some islands in the late Middle Ages, the Catholic Monarchs of Castile decided to conquer the remaining islands: Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife. These islands (Crown islands) were governed by representatives of the monarchs. Elsewhere (Manorial Islands), it was the lord who acted as law enforcement and justice.

The process of conquest was very similar to that which was later applied in America. It was carried out by individuals who signed contracts (called capitulations or chapters) with the Crown, and was completed...

2 Emirate and Caliphate: The IP invasion was due to two factors: the dynamic expansion of Islam and the weakness of the Visigoths. The Gothic king Rodrigo was defeated in 711 by the Arab and Berber army led by Tarik. He later managed to conquer all the IP because Hispanics hoped Muslims would be less harsh. Only a few remained in the Christian faith, while others converted to Islam. Al-Andalus became a province of the Caliphate of Damascus. The Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasids in 750, who made Baghdad the capital of the Caliphate. Abderraman fled to Al-Andalus and created the independent Emirate of Cordoba. His successors boosted the economy and culture and improved the infrastructure of the Romans. In 1031, internal struggles led to...

Historical Evolution of the Spanish Railway

Following the Civil War, the railway network was severely damaged and required substantial investment. Due to insufficient exploitation, companies lacked interest in maintaining concessions. In 1941, the network was nationalized, marking a decisive step toward the creation of RENFE.

The railroad served as the primary means of transporting people and goods until the early 1960s, when it was relegated to a secondary role due to the rise of road transport.

The Railway Network Structure

Similar to the road network, the railway features a radial arrangement centered in Madrid with three primary traffic dispersal hubs: Palencia, Ciudad Real, and Zaragoza.

Since 1992, the railway system has been complemented...

Pre-Roman Peoples of the Iberian Peninsula

A set of peoples occupied the Iberian Peninsula in the first millennium BC. They resulted from the union of indigenous peoples and Indo-European invaders in the center and west, along with Greek and Phoenician settlers in the Levant, South, and Southeast. The Iberians were among the more economically and culturally developed peoples. In the center and west of the peninsula, Celtic influence dominated, although Iberian elements were also present. The most archaic peoples inhabited the North: Galicians, Asturians, and Basques. From this era remains Euskera (Basque language), which is still spoken in current areas of the Basque Country and Navarra.

The Vascones

According to Roman sources, the Vascones were...

Karl Marx in Brussels: Historical Materialism

After being expelled from Paris, Marx settled in Brussels, where he formulated the core theses of historical materialism. These include:

• Social Production: In the social production of their lives, men enter into involuntary and necessary relations of production. These relations depend on the development of material productive forces.
• Means of Production: The degree of development of material productive forces determines the relations of production. These are also property relations, dividing society between those who own the means of production and those who must sell their labor as merchandise.
• Infrastructure and Superstructure: Production relations and productive forces constitute the material infrastructure,

Domestic Trade in Spain

Trade represents the most significant sector within the services industry. Internal trade has benefited greatly from the growth of domestic consumption. In recent years, advertising and marketing have become essential tools for trade expansion.

The structure of trade in Spain mirrors that of other developed nations. Traditional small family businesses now face stiff competition from large distribution chains and department stores. These large retailers utilize self-service techniques in city centers and hypermarkets in peripheral areas.

Modern Retail Formats

Intermediate retail formulas have emerged in areas near city centers, combining business, leisure, and large spaces with smaller shops: these are known as shopping centers....

Agricultural and Environmental Terms Defined

Cañada

A traditional route or path used for the migratory movement of sheep.

Cerco

A type of fishing gear used to capture pelagic species.

Reparcelling

An agrarian policy aimed at reducing smallholdings by reorganizing land plots within municipalities.

Cork

A natural product obtained from the bark of the cork oak tree, typically harvested from forest holdings.

Crops Under Plastic Sheeting

An agricultural system that utilizes plastic sheeting (often foam plastic) to create warm, moist conditions, promoting faster crop development.

Rainfed Crops

Agricultural products that receive water solely from natural precipitation. (Common in Mediterranean regions)

Crops on Terraces

Crops cultivated on terraced land, typically...

Spain's Industrial Crisis and Restructuring (1970s-1980s)

The mid-1970s marked the onset of an international crisis in Spain, triggered by rising oil prices and the economic transformations accompanying the third phase of the Industrial Revolution. The national unemployment rate surged from 1.1% in 1970 to 22% in 1985. Within the industrial sector, unemployment reached 16%, with a staggering 780,000 jobs lost between 1976 and 1985. Several factors necessitated industrial restructuring: business deficiencies, including a prevalence of small businesses, outdated facilities, and low productivity; excessive financial dependency; and the rising cost of capital. These challenges were compounded by the over-specialization of industrial sectors. First-...

Point 2, Item 7: The Problem of Water Resources in Spain

A. Essential Uses of Water in Spain

Water is an essential resource utilized across numerous human activities:

• Agricultural Irrigation: Consumes approximately 80% of total water in Spain.
• Energy Production: Hydropower is a favored water use, driven by industrial energy demand and increasing electricity consumption.
• Urban Consumption: Has increased and now accounts for 14% of the total.
• Waste Disposal: Waste from agriculture, livestock, urban areas, and industry has traditionally been discharged into water bodies.
• Recreational and Other Uses: Activities such as fishing, navigation, and various recreational uses depend on water availability.

B. Unequal Distribution and Water Balance Issues

Although...