Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and exercises for Geography for Baccalaureate

Real Population Growth in Spain

The actual growth of the population can be calculated using the formula: Real Growth = Natural Growth (Births - Deaths) + Net Migration (Immigrants - Emigrants). Since the 19th century, Spain's population has increased threefold, but this growth has not been steady. It can be divided into distinct periods:

• Mid-19th to Early 20th Centuries

  The increase was low due to low natural growth, characteristic of the old demographic regime (high birth and mortality rates), and significant overseas emigration.

• 1900-1975 Period

  This period saw high growth, driven by the high natural growth typical of the demographic transition. The increase would have been even greater if not partially constrained by continued mortality from

Essential Urbanization Vocabulary

• Urbanization rate: The ratio of the population that lives in cities with respect to the total population.
• Urban plans: The planning instruments that regulate the growth of cities.
• Urbanization: The progressive concentration of the population in cities, which implies an increase in the urban population.
• City: Any population center that exceeds a certain number of inhabitants.
• Location: The concrete area on which the city sits, i.e., the set of physical facts (geology, relief, soil, etc.) that provide the framework and support of the city.
• Morphology or Urban Landscape: The study of the shape of the city, combining three elements: flat buildings, land uses, and the street plan.
• Urban functions: These are conceived as

The Evolution of Spanish Cities

Pre-Industrial, Industrial, and Post-Industrial Stages

The evolution of Spanish cities can be divided into three stages: pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial.

The Pre-Industrial City

The pre-industrial city includes the development of cities from antiquity until the installation of the industrialization process.

Ancient Times

The first cities of the Iberian Peninsula arose in the era of Phoenician, Punic, and Greek settlements (7th century BC). These people founded merchant factories. The Roman age saw increased urbanization in the peninsula. Their legacy materialized in the emergence of new Roman colonies, some built on pre-existing populations, such as Tarraco (Tarragona), Carthago Nova (Cartagena), and...

International and Internal Migration Trends (19th Century to 1975 Crisis)

These migrations took place between the last third of the nineteenth century and the crisis of 1975. They were characterized by:

• The primary motivation was work.
• Flows were unidirectional.
• The profile consisted mainly of low-skilled youth.

Internal Migration Rates

Internal migration rates were often seasonal and temporary. They were significant between the last third of the nineteenth century and the 1960s, often having the intention to return.

Rural Migration (1900–1975)

During this period, migration had a definitive character, and the main motivation was securing better jobs and higher incomes. It passed through four stages:

1. In the first third of the nineteenth century, the

19th Century Societal Transformations

Population Growth and Migration Patterns

The 19th century witnessed remarkable population growth in Europe and the USA:

• The European continent doubled its population.
• The United States received a large number of immigrants.

In industrialized countries, this period marked a transition to the modern democratic cycle. From 1850 onwards, transoceanic migrations from the European continent increased significantly, with the United States being the main target. Internal migration also highlighted a significant shift of population from rural to urban areas. Cities grew rapidly, often without proper planning, leading to social classes being segregated into separate neighborhoods.

Decline in Mortality Rates

The decline...

Political Organization and Institutions

The political organizations of Castile and Aragon shared structural similarities, though their practical applications and operations differed significantly. In both kingdoms, the king held absolute power, theoretically limited only by divine law and the established legal frameworks of each realm. The monarch served as the chief executive and supreme justice, exercising authority through royal prerogatives known as regalías.

Key Governing Institutions

• Curia Regia: Composed of the king's relatives, nobles, officials, and judges.
• Royal Council: Evolved from the Curia Regia to serve as a permanent consultative body.
• The Courts (Cortes): Responsible for minting currency and swearing in royal heirs. In Aragon,

Wood: Definition and Environmental Impact

Wood is a relatively tough, fibrous substance found in the trunks of trees, beneath the bark. It serves as a fundamental raw material for the production of numerous products. However, the environmental impact of its harvesting has led to the destruction of large forests, either for timber extraction or to adapt land for other uses.

Paper: Material and Characteristics

Paper is a material derived from cellulose. Its characteristics and function vary significantly depending on the manufacturing process.

Carton: Composition and Properties

Carton (cardboard) is a material made of several superimposed layers of paper, based on either virgin fiber or recycled paper. Carton is generally thicker, harder, and stronger...

The Agrarian Question

The strengthening and consolidation of absolute monarchies in Europe were based on the economic theory of mercantilism. In opposition, the theory of physiocracy emerged, regarding trade as useful and necessary, but unproductive. For the Physiocrats, the decisive factor was agriculture, considered the productive sector that determined a country's economic development.

In the eighteenth century, the cultivated surface area generally increased, but production techniques remained stagnant, relying on traditional methods. Crops were still the same; the introduction of corn and potatoes in Galicia and northern lands in the late seventeenth century failed to alter the situation. Agrarian life housed over 80% of the population....

Medieval Economic, Social, and Political Crisis

The late Middle Ages experienced a significant economic and social demographic crisis, characterized by an aging population. Reliance on outdated agricultural methods led to a subsistence crisis. The economic downturn stemmed from a deep recession, triggering social and political instability.

Agricultural Decline and Trade Disruption

Crop yields declined due to field abandonment. The plague and the Hundred Years' War severely impacted trade. Recovery began in the late fifteenth century, driven by population growth and increased demand. The burgeoning wool industry stimulated livestock farming, boosting trade with the north, particularly in Aragon and Castile.

Political Instability in Castile and Aragon

A...

Political Administration Under the Habsburgs

Local and provincial authorities began to send magistrates and aldermen to señorial appointments. Regarding the administration of justice, the Habsburgs maintained traditional institutions while creating new audiences.

Internal Conflicts and Rebellions

The reigns of Charles I and Philip II were marked by frequent social conflict and political confrontation.

The Revolt of the Comuneros and the Germanies

The most significant conflicts occurred early in the reign of Charles I:

• The Revolt of the Comuneros: A movement by representatives of Castilian cities in the Cortes seeking to exercise control over the monarchy and the nobility.
• The Germanies (Valencia and Mallorca): Primarily social conflicts involving